ESSAYS 



ox 




PRACTICAL AGRICULTURE. 



INCLUDING HIS 



PRIZE ESSAYS, 



CAREFULLY REVISED 



By ADAM BEATTY, 

Vice President of tiie Kentucky Agricultural Societv. 



MAYSVILLE, KY,, 
COLLINS & BROWN. 



1844. 



U.'i.kd^-, 31<>-<V^ 



DEDICATION, 

Dear Sir: — An intimate acquaintance of more than forty 
years; and the many evidences of kindness, and friendship ex- 
perienced, during that long period ; together with a knowledge 
of your devoted attachment to the interests of Agriculture; 
and of the great benefits you have conferred upon the agricul- 
turists of the United States, by your pre-eminent and success- 
ful efforts, in the National Councils, to rear up a home market 
for agricultural products, emboldened me to ask your permission 
to dedicate to you this first effort, as far as I know, at a treat- 
ise, in book form, on the important subject of agriculture, by a 
Kentuckian. 

I am conscious that the volume, now presented to the public, 
has defects, which I would have gladly removed. I humbly 
hope, however, that it will be found to contain some practical 
information, which will prove beneficial to the farming commu- 
nity; and that it may induce some abler writer to give to the 
public a more perfect treatise on the most important of all hu- 
man occupations. 

With a deep sense of gratitude, for the many acts of kind- 
ness and friendship received, I assure you ofmv most 
cordial friendship and esteem. 

ADAM BEATTY. 
Hon. Henry Clay. 




United States of America, District of Kentucky. 

BE IT REMEMBERED, That on this 24th day of February, 
1843, ADAM BEATTY, of said District, deposited in this office the 
title of a book, which is in the words and figures following: 

"Essays on Practical Agriculture, including his Prize Essays, carefully 
revised, by Adam Beatly, Vice-President of the Kentucky Agricultural 
Society, 1843." 

The right whereof he claims as author and proprietor, in conformity 
with the act of Congress, entitled "an act to amend the several acts, 
respecting copyrights." 

A copy attest. 

JOHN H. HANNA, Clerk 

District of Kentucky. 



PREFACE, 

A comparison of the agricultural products of the best culti- 
vated soils of Europe with those of the United States, natural- 
ly not less fertile, will satisfy all careful observers, that there 
must be some radical defect, in our system of husbandry. 
When we look lo the agricultural works of European authors 
for information, on this important subject, we find so little of 
practical utility, and so much inapplicable to our circumstan- 
ces, as greatly to discourage all efforts to obtain useful informa- 
tion from that source, to aid the American farmer, in his agri- 
cultural operations. 

The dense population of those countries, in which the great- 
est improvements, in agriculture, have been made, furnish vast 
quantities of manure for enriching their land ; and the cheap- 
ness of labor affords great facilities for manuring and cultiva- 
ting their soil, in the most perfect manner. The high price 
of Agricultural products, and a steady home demand, subject 
to little fluctuation, justifies the great outlay of capital, which 
their system of agriculture requires. 

These circumstances, together with the difference of climate, 
constitute some of the principle reasons why the European 
system of agriculture cannot be successfully adopted by the 
farmers of the United States. 

Whilst we look to the agricultural works of European au- 
thors for information as to their system of husbandry, and avail 
ourselves of every thing, which is applicable to our circum- 
stances,/We should bear in mind, that the condition of things 
in the United States is such as to require that we should rear 
up a practical system of our own. 



6 

In preparing the premium essays, and other agricultural 
treatises, contained in this volume, it was the author's design 
to render them eminently practical, and applicable to our cir- 
cumstances; and he flatters himself they will be found highly 
useful to the practical farmer. 

Although the premium essays were written particularly for 
Kentucky, the author entertains a hope, that they will be 
found useful in every part of the country, and particularly in 
the Great West The discussions, upon most of the subjects, 
will be found applicable to all parts of the Union. 

The essays on setting woodland in grass; on grazing and 
feeding cattle, as practised in Kentucky ; and upon the cultiva- 
tion of the yellow locust, will be found, the author humbly 
hopes, eminently useful. 



TABLE OF CONTENTS. 

Agriculture of Kentucky — showing what it was, and a compari- 
son with the agriculture of other countries, and especially those 
most advanced in agricultural improvement. And also upon 
the best mode of renovating the soil of Kentucky, where it has 
been deteriorated by improvident cultivation. ... 9 

Cultivation of Corn 81 

Cultivation of Hemp 9*3 

Cultivation of Tobacco 115 

System of Agriculture best adapted to Kentucky. . . . 127 

Rotation of crops 145 

Advantages of manufactures to Agriculture 168 

Breeding horses for agricultural purposes, by W. Williams. . 184 

Ditto by A. Beatty 191 

Letter to Thomas B. S tephenson, Esq., corresponding secretary 
of the Kentucky Agricultural Society, on the nature of soils, 
and the means of rendering them fertile 201 

Letter to same — on food for plants, and whence derived. . . 205 

Letter to same— on the means of reclaiming, and preserving the 
fertility of soils 209 

Letter to same — on the deterioration of soil, and means of reno- 
vation 213 

Letter to Edmund Ruffin, editor and proprietor of the Farmers' 
Register, Petersburg Va., on the relation of the constitu- 
tion of soils to their fertility 217 

Letter to same — on the importance of alkalies in soils. . . 225 

Letter to Thomas B. Stephenson, Esq., on the relative value of 
the most important grasses 231 



On setting woodland in grass. 

On the Cultivation of the Locust. 

On grazing and feeding cattle in Kentucky. 

On making and preserving Timothy Meadows. 

On the cultivation of wheat in rich vegetable soils. 

The mode of feeding root crops to Sheep, &c. &c. 



240 
251 
264 
273 

281 

284 



AGRICULTURE OF KENTUCKY,* 

Showing what it was, and a comparison with the agriculture 
of other countries, and especially those most advanced in 
agricultural improvement. And also, upon the best mode 
of renovating the soil of Kentucky, where it has been dete- 
riorated by improvident cultivation. 

Agriculture may be defined to be, the art of cultivating and 
improving the earth, so as to render it fertile and productive, 
The term is derived from the Latin words agcr, a field, and 
cultura, culture, or tillage. The term agriculture, therefore, 
implies not only the cultivation but the improvement of the soil. 
The cultivation of the earth was, probably, not much atten- 
ded to whilst it was only sparsely inhabited, and when its in- 
habitants depended chiefly upon game for a subsistence. At 
a somewhat later period, when the human race, on some parts 
of the earth, had become too numerous to depend upon the 
precarious subsistence furnished by the chase, the pastoral 
life gradually took the place of the hunter state. The domes- 
ticating and feeding of such animals as contributed to the sub- 
sistence and comfort of man, would, necessarily, cause him to 
pay some attention to the providing of pasture for his herds, 
at least so soon as that which was spontaneously furnished by 
nature, began to grow scarce. And in proportion as the ne- 
cessity for artificial aids increased, we may reasonably con- 
clude, that more pains were taken to provide pasture for their 
herds, during summer; and to lay up a store of such articles 
as might furnish the most convenient subsistence for them 
during the winter. In the more southern climates but little 

* kfc For this, and the three following essays, premiums were awar- 
ded by the Kentucky Agricultural Society, at their annual meeting 
in Frankfort, January 1841." 



10 

necessity would exist for laying up a supply for winter use. 
But in northern climates attention to this subject must have 
sooner become necessary, and that necessity must have grad- 
ually increased, with the increase of population. 

It is probable that the first efforts to introduce a system of 
agriculture were rude and imperfect; and this science, like 
most others, must have arisen by very slow and almost im- 
perceptible degrees, and was a long period in arriving at even 
a moderate degree of advancement. 

Hesiod, who is supposed to have been a contemporary of 
Homer, was the first Grecian, and one of the earliest writers, 
of whom we have any certain information, who composed a 
regular treatise on the subject of agriculture. It is remarka- 
ble that his poem was entitled "Weeks and Days," because 
agriculture requires an exact observance of times and seasons. 

Hesiod was succeeded, in Greece, by Democritus, Socrati- 
cus, Xenophon, Tarentinus, Architas, Aristotle and Thec- 
phrastus. The science of agriculture must have doubtless 
made considerable advances during the period these distin- 
guished writers flourished. 

The celebrated Carthagenian general, Mago, wrote no less 
than twenty eight books, on the subject of agriculture, which 
Columella, himself an able writer on the subject, tells us were 
translated into Latin by virtue of a decree of the Roman Sen- 
ate. That illustrious general and statesman, Marcus Cato, 
the censor, at a subsequent period wrote the first Latin treat- 
ise upon the science of agriculture, which was dedicated to 
his son, and has come down to the present times. Varro com- 
posed a more regular treatise, upon tfcie same subject, which 
was embellished by the extensive Greek and Latin erudition 
of its learned author. Virgil, the most distinguished of the 
Roman poets, wrote a beautiful poem upon this interesting 
subject. We are told by Servius, that Virgil in writing his 
Georgics, used the books of Mago, referred to above, and 
hence we learn, by reading the Georgics, that some discove- 
ries had then been made in the science of agriculture, that 
even now are regarded as very important, 1 shall mention 
but one other ancient author, Columella, who flourished in the 
s reign of the Emperor Claudius. He wrote twelve books, on 



11 

the science of agriculture, which contain a great variety of 
useful facts, and observations. 

It would occupy too much space to enumerate the many 
distinguished writers, on the subject of agriculture, who have 
flourished in modern times; and I shall name only such as I 
shall have occasion to refer to in the progress of this essay. 

Agriculture has ever been esteemed a science of great im- 
portance, and those engaged in its pursuit have always been 
held in the highest estimation. In Rome, the greatest gener- 
als, and the most illustrious Senators and Statesmen applied 
themselves, most assiduously, to this highly honorable pursuit. 
Their most distinguished generals, upon their return from the 
toils and glories of successful war, were enger to re-engage in 
the cultivation of the soil. They thought it no disgrace, after 
having triumphed over the enemies of their country, to parti- 
cipate in the daily labors of their farms. 

At a period of great and imminent danger, the Roman Sen- 
ate (believing that its safety could be ensured only by the ap- 
pointment of a dictator) pngsed a decree, charging Cincinnatus 
"to see that no detriment befcl the Republic.'" The effect of 
this decree was to confer the whole power of the Common- 
wealth, for the space of six months, upon a single individual. 
That individual, when notified of the decree, by delegates sent 
for the purpose, was found following his plough. He accepted 
the charge which had been conferred upon him; placed him- 
self at the head of the army; triumphed over the enemies of 
the Republic; and on the sixteenth day surrendered up his dic- 
tatorial powers, and returned to the cultivation of his little 
farm. A second time, at a more advanced period of his life, 
this illustrious citizen was called from the labors of his farm, 
to fill the office of dictator; and a second time saved his coun- 
try irom the imminent danger with which it was threatened. 

I might refer to other instances of a similar character, if 
the nature of this essay did not admonish me of the necessity 
of avoiding details which are not essential to its utility. But 
I will be pardoned for giving the following beautiful extract 
from Virgil's second Georgic, by way of illustrating the favor- 
able opinion, entertained by the Romans of an agricultural 
life, in Virgil's time, as translated in the harmonious verse of 
Drvden. 



12 



"Oh happy, if he knew his happy state ! 
The swain, who, free from business and debate, 
Receives his easy food from nature's hand, 
And just returns from cultivated land." 
"He boasts no wool, whose native white is dyed 
With purple poison of Assyrian pride, 
No costly drugs of Araby defile : 
With foreign sweets, the sweetness of his oil. 
But easy quiet, a secure retreat, 
A harmless life that knows not how to cheat, 
With home-bred plenty the rich owner bless, 
And rural pleasures crown his happiness, 
Unvexed with quarrels, undisturbed with noise, 
The country king his peaceful realm enjoys." 
In a country, in which the profession of an agriculturalist 
was so highly honored, and which held out such strong in- 
ducements to cultivate and improve the soil, the science of ag- 
riculture must doubtless have made considerable advances. 

It has been said by a modern writer, that a system of rota- 
tion ii^crops was not introduced before the eighteenth centu- 
ry. This, though it may be true, in relation to modern agri- 
culture, is not strictly correct. Indications may be found, in 
ancient writers, that this system was not wholly unknown. 
Thus Virgil, in his first Georgic : 

"Both these unhappy soils the swain forbears, 
And keep a Sabbath of alternate years. 
That the spent earth may gather heart again, 
And bettered by cessation, bear the grain, 
At least where vetches, pulse and torn have stood, 
And stalks of lupine grew, (a stubborn wood;) 
The ensuing season, in return may bear, 
The bearded product of the golden year. 
For flax and oats will burn the tender field 
And sleepy poppies harmful harvests yield. 
But sweet vicissitudes of rest and toil, 
Make easy labor, and renew the soil." 
But whatever knowledge the ancients had acquired, in re- 
gion to a system of rotation in crops, was probably lost, when 
the Roman territories were overrun by the northern barbari- 
ans The skill which had been previously acquired, in agri- 
culture shared a common fate with all the other sciences: and 
the whole would have been completely obliterated had not ma- 
ny of the works of the most illustrious authors of Greece and 
Rome been saved from the barbarian deluge which swept over 



13 

the whole of the Roman territories. Many years elapsed be- 
fore agriculture began to revive, and the science might be 
deemed only in its infancy as late as the sixteenth century. It 
was about the middle of that century that "Tussers' celebrated 
five hundred points of husbandry was published in verse. 1 ' 
And it was not till 1645 that the culture of turnqys and clover 
was introduced, articles that now constitute so important a 
part of English husbandry. It was still later before a regu- 
lar system of rotation of crops was commenced. Among the 
Romans, "fallowing was a universal practice," and the same 
system was adopted in England, and pursued until the eigh- 
teenth century, when a rotation of "green and white crops' 1 
was gradually substituted in the place of fallows. This may 
be considered as a most important era in the science of agri- 
culture. From this period it advanced with rapid strides, to- 
wards a state of comparative-perfection. And it is only since 
that period, that agriculture has assumed the rank of an "ex- 
act science.'" 

To comprehend fully the benefits of rotation in crops, it is 
necessary to understand the philosophical principles of agri- 
culture, and to have some idea of the food or aliment of plants. 
"Comparatively speaking, very little was known of the ulti- 
mate general principles of agriculture until the splendid dis- 
coveries of chemistry had provided means of tracing them 
out. The laws of vegetation were entiiely unknown, and the 
whole machinery of nature's kingdom was mysterious. The 
range of the farmer's calculations was limited to certain max- 
ims—wise ones indeed— but few in number. It was known 
that some soils would produce one species of grain better than 
another, and that there was a vast difference in the vegeta- 
ting power of soils. But there was the limit of knowledge; 
and these few truths only ascertained by simple experiment. 
Why these things were so, no one knew; and no one thought 
it possible to "know. The want of general principles, of 
course, was universally felt; and to this want we must attrib- 
ute many strange and ridiculous rules of farming, common 
even at this time, which we may well call the superstitions of 
agriculture; such, for instance as rules for sowing or reaping 
in a particular age of the moon, or day of the week." 

"Chemistrv has provided some general principles which 

B* 



14 

will ultimately banish from the farmer's manual all these relics 
of a barbarous and ignorant age. The celebrated Sir Hum- 
phrey Davy has probably accomplished about all for agricul- 
ture, which well can be; and his lectures on this subject, 
should be familiar to every farmer who would know himself 
and would teach his children the real simple reasons why one 
system of farming is better than another."* In the applica- 
tion of science to agriculture, the first thing to be attended to 
is the soil. This is the basis of all agricultural pursuits. A 
thorough acquaintance with its "nature and uses" is essential 
to the successful operations of the husbandman. 

All soils are composed of different species of earths, usually 
combined, not only with each other, but with sundry other sub- 
stances, in a great variety of proportions. And upon these 
proportions depends, in a great degree, the adaptation of dif- 
ferent species of agricultural pr^ucts. 

The usual earths, found in our soil, are the following: Silex, 
Lime and Alumina. These are usually found combined or 
mingled with each other, in different proportions. Silex, (sand) 
when uncombined with any other earth, is wholly incapable of 
sustaining vegetation. Lf some vegetables are occasionally 
found growing in pure sand, they are, probably, sustained by 
food derived from the atmosphere. But sand combined in due 
proportions, with Alumina, (clay) is found to constitute a very 
valuable soil. Clay, of itself, though more capable than sand 
of sustaining vegetation, is known to be but slightly adapted 
to that purpose. Yet when these two earths are combined, in 
proper proportions, they form a soil well adapted to many ag- 
ricultural products. Thus it is shown by the Cultivator for 
January, 1838, that by the simple process of hauling upon a soil, 
naturally very sandy, from fifty to one hundred loads of clay 
per acre, a product of corn was secured, from one hundred and 
ten to one hundred and eighteen bushels per acre. It is prob- 
able, however, that in the soil, thus so greatly fertilized, there 
was contained a portion of lime and vegetable matter. But 
the great yield obtained in this instance, is doubtless to be at- 
tributed chiefly to the simple addition of clay to the other in- 
gredients in the soil. 

^Farmers' Guide, p. 29. Since the publication of the Farmers' 
Guide, vast improvements in agricultural Chemistry have been made 
by Sprengel, Liebig, Johnston, and other eminent chemists. 



15 

The other earth (lime) is not what is usually called by that 
name, the quick lime, obtained by burning limestone. This 
is a product of art and not of nature. The limestone itself, 
when disintegrated, is what constitutes this earth. In this 
state it is combined with a large quantity of carbonic acid and 
water. These two ingredients constitute about half its ori- 
ginal weight. In this state it is the most useful of all the 
earths, in forming a good soil. It is the abundance of this sub- 
stance, in the rich limestone region of the west, and particu- 
larly in Kentucky, coupled with a large quantity of vegeta- 
ble matter which renders our lands so extremely fertile. 

The earths mentioned above, are usually described as unor- 
ganized substances. They are always found combined, in 
greater or lesser proportions, with organic or vegetable and 
animal matter. And it is to these substances that the earths, 
especially the two former, are chiefly indebted for their fertil- 
izing qualities. One of the principal ingredients in all ve- 
getables, is carbon. And as lime (I use the term in the sense 
explained above) contains a large quantity of carbon, in a 
state of combination, it follows that it must afFord a consider- 
able quantity of food to all vegetables, provided they are ca- 
pable of extracting it from its state of combination with the 
earth of which it forms a component part. There is no doubt 
vegetables do possess this power. It is one of the proper- 
tics of the Iking principle in all vegetables, to be capible of 
decompounding compound substances, and absorbing such of 
the compound parts as are suitable food to accelerate their 
growth.* It is by this principle vegetables are enabled to 
evolve carbon and water from calcarious earths ; and as lime, 
when deprived of a portion of its carbon and water, has a 
powerful affinity for these substances, it will attract them 
from the atmosphere, and other surrounding substances, and 
thus be enabled to furnish a constant supply of food to all 
kinds of vegetables. 

But although vegetables have the power to decompose lime, 
and appropriate one of its components as food for their susten- 
ance, yet this power can be exercised only when other sub- 
stances are present to aid in carrying out the process. Water 



♦Conversations on chemistry, p. 279-80. 



16 

is the great solvent by which vegetables are enabled to absorb 
the substances which constitute their appropriate food. Hence, 
during a very dry season, the crops suffer greatly, not be- 
cause nature has not supplied the appropriate aliment for 
their sustenance, but because the necessary solvent is not pre- 
sent, in sufficient abundance, to enable them to appropriate 
to their use the food, which nature has provided for them. If 
the rain is superabundant, the solvent may exist in too large 
a proportion, and thereby weaken the aliment, and render it 
less nourishing. 

Organic matter, when reduced to its primary elements, ex- 
ists in a liquid or gaseous state, and will readily combine with 
water or the atmosphere, and may thus be absorbed by all 
vegetable substances, by means of their roots and leaves. 
The earths are of a more solid nature, except the carbon of 
lime, and seem not susceptible of being absorbed to anv con- 
siderable extent so as to constitute a part of vegetable 
growth.* 

But though incapable, in themselves, (except lime) of fur- 
nishing any considerable aliment to support vegetable growth 
they are the principle media through which food is furnished • 
and their greater or less adaptation for this purpose assists in 
constituting what is called fertility or poverty of soil. I say 
principle media, because it is well known that the atmosphere 
is also a medium through which plants are furnished with ali- 
ment by means of the absorbing power of their leaves. 

1 have been thus particular in showing how carbon consti- 
tutes food for vegetables, not because it is the only source of 
supply, but because the remarks made, on this subject, will 
serve to illustrate what may be said in relation to other sub- 
stances, which enter into the sustenance of vegetables. 

It was supposed, in the time of Lavoisier, that the elemen- 
tary principles of all vegetable substances were oxygen, hy- 
drogen and carbon, and that animal substances, in addition to 
these, contained nitrogen and phosphorus. But more modern 
chemists have discovered, in both vegetable and animal sub- 
stances, a variety of compounds, such as lime, potash, phos- 
phorus, sulphur, and the oxides of various metals. It has been 

*Some vegetables are found to contain, in combination, a small 
portion of the silex.— Farmers' Guide, p. 31. 



17 

supposed, "that the food of plants is, when consumed, either 
pure carbon or some gaseous compound of carbon."* But 
this cannot be correct. It is reasonable to infer that the ele- 
mentary principles of all the substances mentioned above, as- 
found combined with vegetable substances, should constitute a 
part of their food.| As the black mould of the rich Kentucky 
soil is composed of vegetable and animal decompositions, it 
must contribute largely towards the sustenance of vegetation. 
It is upon this principle, also, that all manures contribute to 
the fertilization of the soil. They are composed chiefly of in- 
gredients, which constitute the proper food of plants, and con- 
sequently must facilitate their luxuriant growth. Some ma- 
nures, such as "quick lime," are valuable, in consequence of 
their aiding in the decomposition of vegetable matter. Oth- 
ers, because they assist in extracting from the atmosphere ele- 
mentary principles, which serve as aliment for plants. Such, 
perhaps, is plaster of Paris, (sulphate of lime.)| 

The productiveness or unproductiveness of the soil depends 
upon the elements of its composition. If those elements 
abound, which afford the pabulum or food necessary for the 
particular crop, which is intended to be grown upon the soil, 
it may be expected that the crop will flourish and yield abun- 
dantly. If there be a scarcity of the elements, which furnish 
the peculiar or appropriate food for the intended crop, the 
yield will be proportionably small. But though a particular 
soil may be deficient in the elements suitable to one crop, it 
may abound in those which furnish the appropriate pabulum 
for another. Hence it is necessary that there should be a fit- 
ness or adaptation of the soil to the particular vegetable or 



^Farmers' Guide, p. 40. 

tThe investigations of a succession of able chemists, have abun- 
dantly proved the truth of this suggestion. Besides the organic sub- 
stances, which furnish appropriate food for vegetables, the following 
inorganic substances have been found in the ash of plants, and con- 
sequently constitute a part of their food. Potash, Soda, Lime, Mag- 
nesia, Alumina, Silica, Sulphuric acid, Phosphoric acid, Chlorine, 
Oxide of iron, and Oxide of Manganese. These arc not all found in 
the same plants. — Johnstone's lectures on the organic elements of 
plants, part n, p. 318-323. 

^Since this essay was written, Liebig's valuable work on organic 
chemistry has been received. He explains, in a very satisfactory 
manner, how plaster of Paris (sulphate of lime) operates as a ma- 
nure. I have noticed his views, on this subject, in the essay on the 
system of agriculture, best adapted to Kentucky. 1 ' 



. 18 

crop which is to be grown upon it. Again, a soil may possess 
an abundance of those elements, which are suitable for the 
food of a particular vegetable or other crop, but by growing 
the same crop, for a succession of years, upon the same 
ground, the 'pabulum most appropriate for such crop, may be- 
come so much exhausted as to furnish only a stinted supply to 
it, and hence its produce will be small. The elements suitable 
for a different crop may, however, exist in abundance; and 
hence the advantage, and in some instances, the absolute ne- 
cessity for a rotation in crops. The correctness of these prin- 
ciples will be illustrated by the observations of every intelli- 
gent farmer. The same vegetable may be seen to flourish a 
number of years, and then gradually give way to some other 
vegetable growth. And again, that will be succeeded by an- 
other, perhaps the former one again. The same ground will 
not furnish the appropriate food, and in suitable quantity, to 
flax, two years in succession,* whilst hemp may be grown on 
the sums ground a number of years, with little or no deterio- 
ration. Even timber, of a particular kind, after a long suc- 
cession of years, will give w T ay to another growth of trees. 
Thus even our forests are compelled to yield to the great law 
of nature, that no soil can sustain, in a flourishing condition, 
any vegetable production when it shall cease to contain, in 
sufficient abundance, those elementary principles and combina- 
tions of matter, which constitute the appropriate food for such 
vegetable."! 

The above extract, coupled with the remarks heretofore 
made, will, perhaps, be sufficient to show the philosophical 
principles upon which a rotation in crops is founded. But ag- 
riculture is a practical science, and the surest test of utility is 
actual experiment. On this subject we have the benefit of 
many experiments, made in the most accurate and careful 
manner, which clearly demonstrate the great importance and 
value of a good system of rotation in crops. We are per- 
haps, indebted more to the celebrated Arthur Young, for ex- 
periments on this subject, than to any other man. Although, 
from climate and other causes, the agriculture of England dif- 

*For flax and oats will burn the tender field, 
And sleepy poppies harmful harvests yield. — 1 Georgics. 
tReport of the committee on Education, to the Senate of Kentucky, 
session 1838-9. 



19 

fers very much from ours, yet we may derive much valuable 
information from experiments made in that country, in relation 
to rotation in crops. The following experiments, made by 
the distinguished agriculturalist mentioned pbove, show, in a 
very striking manner, the great difference in value between a 
good and a bad system of rotation. 

These experiments were made with great accuracy and at- 
tention, "upon a soil of the sandy loam kind, incumbent upon 
a wet clay marl bottom, rendered dry by means of previous 
hollow draining, and of the annual value of fifteen shillings 
the acre, broken up from the state of grass under which it had 
been for a great length of time, and ploughed into ridges in 
contrary directions, each succeeding year, no manure being 
applied except in particular lands or ridges in the fourth 
year.''' 

"The crops, in the whole of the thirty-six courses, were 
reaped and threshed directly, distinct from each other to obvi- 
ate the danger of mixing and errors, and are minuted accu- 
rately to save the trouble of calculation. In the valuation all 
the straw is valued at ten shillings per acre, and the crops are 
likewise estimated — that the fluctuations of price may not af- 
fect the general conclusions — the turnips at 4 s. a ton, carted 
off; cabbage at 5 s; wheat 5 s. a bushel; barley 2 s. 6d; oats 
2 s. 3d.; beans 3 s.; potatoes 6 d." No part of the crops was 
consumed on the ground. Each course ran through six years, 
yielding a crop each year. 



1st. COURSE.* 

1 Beans 3 qrs. I bushel 

2 Turnips 8 tons 6 cwt. 

3 Wheat 2 qrs. 5 bushels 

4 Potatoes 234 bushels 

5 Beans 3 qrs. 

6 Wheat 3 qrs. 3 bushe's 



Average, 



£. s. 


d. 


4 5 





1 13 





5 15 





5 17 





4 2 





7 5 





28 17 





4 16 


o 



2nd COURSE. 
1 Beans 3 qrs. 1 peck 

Cabbages G^ tons 

3 Wheat 2 qrs. 5 bushels 

4 Cabbages 7 tons 

5 Beans 3 qrs. 7 bushels 
ti Wheat 3 qrs. 3 bushels 



£. 8. 


d 


4 2 


9 


1 12 


8 


5 15 





1 15 


(i 


5 3 





7 5 





25 13 


3 



Average, 4 5 6^ 



*There are some slight errors in the figures, in some of the courses 
of experiments, but they exist in the work from which I copy, 
(Reese's Cyclopaedia.) I have corrected such as are evidently ty- 
pographical, and which do not affect the general results of the calcu- 
lations. The others, being unimportant and not susceptible of cor- 
rection, without changing in a slight degree, the calculations and gen- 
eral results, I have not attempted to correct them. It will be recol- 
lected, that eight bushels of 70 lbs. each make a ^quarter, and that in 
the valuations of the crops, ten shillings per acre are added for the 
straw of the wheat, barley, oats and beans. 



20 



1 Beans 



2 Potatoes 150 bushels 



3d COURSE. £. 

3 qrs. 1 bush. 1 p'k. 4 



3 Wheat 

4 Cabbages 

5 Beans 

6 Wheat 



2 qrs. 2£ bushels 
5£ tons 

3 qrs. 5 bushels 
3 qrs. 1 bushel 



10th COURSE. 

1 Beans 3 qrs. 

2 Bean3 4 qrs. 

3 Beans 4 qrs. 6 bushels 

4 Cabbages 81 tons 

5 B<=ans 4 qrs. 

6 Wheat 4 qrs. 1 bushel 



26 2 9 



1 Beans 

2 Beans 

3 Wheat 

4 Cabbages 

5 Beans 

6 Wheat 



Average, 

4th COURSE. 

3 qrs. H bushels 

4 qrs. 2 bushels 

2 qrs. 3£ bushels 
6£ tons 
4 qrs. 

3 qrs. 1 bushel 



4 
£. 
4 
5 
5 
1 
5 
6 



28 18 9 



1 Beans 

2 Barley 

3 Wheat 

4 Barley 

5 Beans 
Wheat 



Average, 
5th COURSE. 
3 qrs. 2 bushels 
3 qrs. 1 peck 
2 qrs. 2 bushels 
2 qrs. 2 pecks 
2 qrs. 
I qr. 7 bushels 



4 
£. 

4 



16 



3 10 
5 
2 11 
2 18 

4 5 



22 13 



Average, 3 

6th COURSE. £. 



1 Beans 


3 qrs. 1 bush. 1£ 


2 Wheat 


2 qrs. 7 bushels 


3 Wheat 


1 qr. 6 bushels 


4 Wheat 


2 qrs. 2| bushels 


5 Beans 


1 qr. 7 bushels 


6 Wheat 


1 qr. 4 bushels 




Average, 




7th COURSE. 


1 Beans 


3 qrs. 


2 Turnips 


4 tons 


3 Beans 


5 qrs. 2 bushels 


4 Potat's. 


234 bushels 


5 Beans 


3 qrs. 


6 Wheat 


3 qrs. 4 bushels 




Average, 




8th COURSE. 


1 Beans 


3 qrs. 1 bushel 


2 Cabbages 6 tons 


3 Wheat 


3 qrs. 


4 Cabbages 6a tons 


5 Beans 


4 qrs. 2 bushels 


6 Wheat 


3 qrs. 6 bushels 




Average, 




9th COURSE. 


I Beans, 


3 qrs. 


2 Potat's 


147 bushels 


3 Beans 


4 qrs. 


4 Cabbag* 


s 6i tons 


5 Beans 


4 qrs. 3 bushels 


6 Wheat 


3 qrs. 5 bushe.'s 



15 

s. 
5 
3 


o 

15 

10 



25 15 11 



4 6 
£. s. 

4 2 
16 

6 16 

5 17 
4 2 

7 10 



29 3 



4 
£. 
4 
1 
6 
I 
5 



27 9 
4 11 
L. s. 
4 
3 
5 
1 
5 
7 



Average, 



28 6 
4 13 5 



8 15 



31 15 6 



Beans 
Barley 
Beans 
Barley 
Beans 
Wheat 



Average, 
11th COURSE, 

3 qrs. 1 peck 

4 qrs. 7 bushels 

4 qrs. 

5 qrs. 4 bushels 
4 qrs. 1 bushel 
3 qrs. 1 bushel 



33 3 





Average 




12th COURSE. 


Beans 


3 qrs. 


Wheat 


2 qrs. 6 1-2 bushels 


Beans 


3 qrs. 2 1-2 bushels 


Wheat 


3 qrs. 3J bushels 


Beans 


3 qrs. 


Wheat 


3 qrs. 



Average, 
13th COORSE. 

1 Turnips 3 tons 

2 Turnips 5 1-2 tons 

3 Oats 9 qrs. 

4 Potat's. 252 bushels 

5 Beans 3 qrs. 1 bushel 

6 Wheat 3 qrs. 3 bushels 



Average, 
14th COURSE. 

1 Turnips 3 tons 

2 Cabbage 6 tons 

3 Oats 10 qrs. 5 1-2 bus. 

4 Cabbage 8 tons 

5 Beans 3 qrs. 5 bushels 

6 Wheat 3 qrs. 



5 

L. 
4 
6 

4 

7 
4 



6 10 10 



32 14 9 



5 9 1 
L. s. d. 

12 

12 

8 12 

6 6 
4 5 

7 5 



28 

4 

L. 

I 

10 
2 

5 
6 



26 II 4 

Average, 4 8 6 

loth COURSE. Z. s. d. 

1 Turnips 3 1-2 tons 14 

2 Potat's. 154 bushels 3 17 

3 Oats 8 qrs. 5 1-2 bushels 8 I II 

4 Cabbages 8 tons 2 
Beans 3 qrs. 5 bushels 4 17 

6 Wheat 3 qrs. I bushel 6 15 



Average, 
I6th COURSE. 

1 Turnips 3 tons 

2 Beans 4 qrs. 

3 Oats 8 qrs. 7 bushels 

4 Cabbages 6 tons 

5 Beans 3 qrs. 6 bushels 

6 Wheat 3 qrs. 2 bushels 



Average, 



26 

4 

L. 

5 
8 
I 
5 

7 



II 
6 
d. 

U 
it 






27 17 9 



4 12 II 



21 



I?th COURSE. 

1 Turnips 3 1-2 tons 

2 Barley 5 qrs. I peck 

3 Oatg 5 qrs. 5 Dushels 

4 Barley 4 qrs. 

5 BeanB 3 qrs. 

6 Wheat 2 qrs. 



24 7 10 



Average, 4 13 

I8th COURSE. L. s. d 

1 Turnips 3 tons 12 

2 Wheat 2 qrs 7 bushels 6 5 

3 Oats 4 qrs. 6 1-2 bushels 4 16 I 

4 Wheat 2 qrs. 3 bush. £ peck 5 5 4 

5 Beans 2 qrs. 2 18 

6 Wheat I qr. 7 bushels 4 5 



24 I 5 



Average, 
19th COURSE. £. 
1 Potatoes 106 bushels 2 



2 Turnips 

3 Potatoes 

4 Potatoes 

5 Beans 

6 Wheat 



4& tons 
136 bushels 
198 bushels 

2 qrs. 

1 qr. 6 bus. 



4 

s. 
13 
18 

8 
19 
18 





Average, 3 2 

20th COURSE. £. s. 

1 Potatoes 105 bushels 2 12 

2 Cabbages 5 tons 1 15 

3 Potatoes 110 bushels 2 15 

4 Cabbages 4 tons 



5 Beans 

6 Wheat 



1 

2 qrs. 2 bus. 3 
2 qrs. 1 




4 

10 



Average, 
21st. COURSE. 

1 Potatoes 104 bushels 

2 Ditto 126 bushels 



3 Ditto 

4 Cabbages 

5 Beans 

6 Wheat 



97 ditto 
3 tons 
1 qr. 7 bus 
1 qr. 4 bus 



o 

£ 
2 
3 
2 



12 

s. 

12 

3 

8 

15 

15 

10 



15 
2 

£• 
2 



Average, 
22d. COURSE. 

1 Potatoes 100 bushels 

2 Beans 3 qrs. 4 

3 Potatoes 142 bushels 3 

4 Cabbages 5 tons 1 

5 Beans 2 qrs. 4 bus. 3 10 

6 Wheat 2 qrs. 1 bus. 4 15 



3 

10 
s. 

10 
2 

11 
5 



Average, 



19 13 
3 5 



18 18 



15 16 6 



23d. COURSE. £. s. d. 

1 Potatoes 101 bushels 2 10 6 

2 Barley 4 qrs. 7 bus. 5 7 6 

3 Potatoes 127 bushels 3 3 6 
Barley 3 qrs. 2 bus. 3 15 

d Beans 2 qrs. 7 bus. 3 19 

6 Wheat 2 qrs. 5 bus. 5 15 



21 10 6 



Average, 
24th. COURSE, 
1 Potatoes 100 bushels 



£■ 



2 Wheat 

3 Potatoes 
1 Wheat 

5 Beans 

6 Wheat 



2 qrs. 1 bus. 4 
104 bushels 2 
2 qrs. 4 

2 qrs. 2 bus. 3 
1 qr. 6 bus. 4 



1 

s, 
10 
15 
12 
10 

4 





9 
<! 









21 11 



Average, 3 11 10 

25th COURSE. £. s. d. 

1 Potatoes 98 bushels 2 9 

2 Turnips 4 tons 16 

3 Cabbages 51 tons 17 6 
1 Potatoes 270 bushels 6 15 

5 Beans 2 qrs. 2 bus. 3 4 

6 Wheat 2 qrs. 2 bus. 5 



19 11 6 



Average, 
26th COURSE. 

1 Potatoes 101 bushels 

2 Cabbages 6 tons 



1 Ditto 
t Ditto 
.") Beans 
6 Wheat 



3 
£. 
2 
1 
1 




5* tons 
3 tons 
2 qrs. 6 bus. 3 
2 qrs. 2 bus. 5 



5 

s. 
10 
10 

7 

15 
16 





9 
d 
6 

6 
(i 





14 19 



Average, 

27th COURSE. 

1 Potatoes 100 bushels 

2 Ditto 115 bushels 
3-J tons 
3± tons 



3 Cabbages 



4 Ditto 
.5 Beans 
6 Wheat 



2 9 10 

£. s. d. 

2 10 

2 17 6 

17 6 

17 6 

2 qrs. 2 bus. 3 4 

2 qrs. 4 10 



14 16 6 



Average, 
28th COURSE. 
1 Potatoes 96 bushels 



£. 



2 Beans 

3 Cabbages 
1 Ditto 

c 



3 qrs. h, peck 4 
6i tons 1 

4 tons 1 



9 

s. 
8 
2 
12 




a. 

8 
4 

6 




22 



Beans 2 qrs. 2 bus. 3 4 

Wheat 2 qrs. 3 bus. 5 5 



Average, 
29th COURSE. 
Potatoes 100 bushels 



£• 
2 



Barley 

Cabbages 
Barley 
Beans 
Wheat 



17 11 

2 18 
s. 
10 
8 

4 qrs. 1 bus. 4 12 
2 




4 qrs. 7£ bu 
4 tons 



3 qrs. 

2 qrs. 6 bus 



Average, 

30th COURSE. 
Potatoes 99 bushels 
Wheat 
Cabbages 
Wheat 
Beans 
Wheat 



23 
3 

£• 
2 

2 qrs. 7 bus. 6 
4£ tons 1 

3qs.6b.Hp.8 
2 qrs. 6 bus. -3 
2 qrs. 4 



13 

18 
s. 
9 
5 
2 
1 
16 
10 



10 

7 

d. 



9 



6 





3 

10 

d 

6 

6 
6 





33d. COURSE. 

1 Potatoes 100 bushels 

2 Potatoes 112 bushels 



3 Turnips 

4 Cabbages 

5 Beans 

6 Wheat 



£. 
2 

2 


1 



10 
16 
16 
2 



26 4 6 

Average, 4 7 5 

31st. COURSE. £. s. d, 

Potatoes 100 bushels 2 10 

Turnips 4 tons 16 

Turnips 5 tons 10 

Potatoes 288 bushels 7 4 

Beans 3 qrs. 4 2 



I 

2 
3 
4 
5 
6 Wheat 



2 qrs. 7 bus. 6 5 



Average, 
32d. COURSE. 
Potatoes 101 bushels 
Cabbages 5 tons 



21 17 
3 12 



Turnips 
Cabbages 
Beans 
Wheat 



4 tons 
4 tons 
3 qrs. 
2 qrs. 6 bus. 



£, 
2 
1 

1 
4 
6 



p. 

10 
5 

16 

■2 





10 

d, 

6 








15 13 
2 12 



4 tons 

4£ tons 

2 qrs. 5bu. 3 13 

2 qrs. 3 bu. 5 5 



d. 







6 







16 2 6 



34th. 

1 Potatoes 

2 Beans 

3 Turnips 

4 Cabbages 

5 Beans 

6 Wheat 



Average, 
COURSE. 
98 bushels 

3 qrs. 1 p-k 

4 tons 
5§ tons 
3 qrs. 
2 qrs. 6bu. 



2 

£. 

2 

4 


1 
4 

6 



13 
s. 
9 
2 

16 
7 
2 




9 
d. 

I 

6 





18 17 3 



Average, 3 

35th COURSE. £. 
1 Potatoes 100 bushels 2 



2 Barley 

3 Turnips 

4 Barley 

5 Beans 

6 Wheat 



4 qs.6 b.3p.5 
4 tons 

4 qrs. 4 

3 qrs. 4 

3 qrs. 6 



•2 

s. 
10 

6 
1G 
10 

2 
10 



10 
d. 


10 











23 14 10 



Averace, 
36t.h COURSE. 
1 Potatoes 100 bushels 



2 Wheat 

3 Turnips 

4 Wheat 

5 Beans 

6 Wheat 



2 qrs. 6 bu 
4 tons 

2q.7b.2£p. 
2 qrs. 6 bus. 
2 qrs. 6 bus. 



19 
s. 
10 

16 



8 

16 





1 

d. 











25 10 



Average, 4 5 
Average, 

The annexejitable will show, at a single glance, the gener- 
al results of the course of experiments detailed above, and 
will aid the reader in comprehending the remarks I shall make 
upon them. It must be recollected these experiments were 
all carried on together and completed in the course of six 
years. Something must be allowed for the more or less fa- 
vourableness of the season. This may be judged of with some 
degree of accuracy, by comparing the product of the same 
crop, (potatoes for instance,) in the different years. Thus 
their product for the first year, (when they could not be af- 



23 



fected by any previous crop,) was about 100 bushels per acre. 
Their product the second year, rose to 150 bushels and up- 
wards. This might have been owing, in part, to a better sea- 
son, and in part to the grass sod having become decomposed. 
The fourth year, though preceded by three other crops, was 
larger than any of the preceding. Thus in No. 1, 7, 13, 25, 
31 the product in that year was, respectively, 234, 234, 252, 
270 and 288 bushels per acre. On the other hand in course 
19, the product of potatoes for the same year was only 19S 
bushels. Bat this crop was preceded by two other crops of 
potatoes and one of turnips, which considerably reduced the 
product. The 19th course clearly shows that the fourth year 
must have been favorable to the potatoe crop. The first j 
of that course produced 103 bushels, the second 4^ tons tur- 
nips, the third 130 bushels of potatoes, and the fourth, though 
preceded by three other crops, 193 bushels. 

The annexed table shows the average value of each co: 
of crops; and the number of crops respectively of wheat, L c- 
ley, oats, ftcans, turnips, potatoes and cabbages, also the aver- 
age product of wheat in each course. 





o 










■ 


in 


tn 


- 




SP« 


« to 


OI til 


*J '/. 


■ 


c 


o 


K 
to 


CO es - 


No. 


J- — 

£"3 

<> 


- C 

— o 


rt g 


o£ 


ji 


Z 


-. 


es 


l- CJ " 

c — ■- 






C3 o 





n 


s 


o 


_ 


<*=- 


1 


4 16 2 


2 


1 






94 


2 


4 5 6 


2 






2 






o 


24 


3 


4 7 ]i 


2 






2 






I 




4 


4 16 15 i 


2 






* 






I 


~~* 


5 


3 13 6 




o 




o 








re* 





4 6 


4. 






2 








I6i 


7 


4 17 6 








3 


1 






28 


8 


4 11 ? 








2 






9 


30 


9 


4 13 5 








3 






I 


30 


10 


5 5 11 








4 






I 


33 


11 


5 10 




o 




3 








25 


12 


5 9 1 








3 








m 


13 


4 13 8 










2 






27 


14 


4 8 6 














2 


24 


15 


4 7 6 














I 


21 


16 


4 12 11 














1 


Sfi 


17 


4 13 




2 












n; 


18 


4 2 
















19 


19 


3 2 8 












3 




14 


20 


2 12 9 












2 


2 


IS 


21 


2 10 7 












3 


1 


I J 


22 


3 5 6 












2 


I 


17 


23 


4 19 




2 








.> 




21 


24 


3 11 10 


3 










■| 




I5| 


25 


3 5 3 










I 


o 


I 


18 


26 


2 9 10 












I 


3 


18 


27 


2 9 5 












2 


2 


IG 


28 


2 18 7 












I 


2 


19 


29 


3 18 10 




2 








1 


I 


22 


30 


4 7 5 












I 


1 


23 


31 


3 12 10 










2 


o 




23 


32 


2 12 3 












I 


2 


82 


33 


2 13 9 












2 


i 


11 


34 


3 2 10 








52 




I 


I 


O.J 


35 


3 19 1 




2 








I 




24 


36 


4 5 












I 




22* 




55 


12 


6 


59 


18 


36 


» 1 


768* 



♦Average wheat crop per acre, 2U bushels. 



24 

Some reflections upon the foregoing experiments of Mr. 
Young, may not be out of place. It will be observed that the 
"white crops," (wheat, barley and oats,) compared with the 
"green crops," (beans, turnips, potatoes and cabbages,) as 
shown by the foregoing table, are as 73 to 143, about one to 
two; and that the wheat crops average a fraction over one and 
a half in each course of six years. The average product of 
wheat per acre, in the entire thirty-six courses, is 21j bush- 
els. This average, it is obvious, was considerably reduced by 
too large an introduction of the potatoe crop. Thus from No . 
19 to 25 two or more potatGe crops were introduced into each 
course ; and during those seven years the wheat crop averaged 
only I65 bushels per acre* If those years be left out the av- 
erage will be nearly twenty-three bushels. Considering that 
the soil was inferior, many of the rotations not of the best 
kind, and that no manure was applied, this is certainty a very 
good average. The remarkable manner in which the land 
preserved its fertility in the more favorable rotations shows 
clearly the great advantages resulting from system'm agricultu- 
ral pursuits. English writers are of opinion that potatoes are 
a very exhausting crop. The facts exhibited in Mr. Young's 
course of experiments fully sustain that opinion. I refer par- 
ticularly to No. 21, 24, 27, in each of which two or three crops 
of potatoes were introduced, with decidedly deteriorating ef- 
fects. 

Cabbages are also thought to be somewhat exhausting when 
not fed upon the ground, but not so much so as potatoes. 
Their influence may perhaps be seen in the 28, 27 and 28 
courses, though undoubtedly the smallness of the crop of wheat 
in those courses should, in some degree, be ascribed to the po- 
tatoe crop. No. 2, 8, and 14 would seem to indicate that cab- 
bages are not an exhausting crop. They are certainly not so, 
when fed upon the ground on which they grew. 

Wheat is allowed by all writers, to be a very exhausting 
crop, and therefore, should not be admitted more than twice in 
a course of six years, where it is necessary to renovate an ex- 
hausted soil, or to keep one of medium fertility in good heart. 
But if the soil be fresh and naturally very fertile, three crops 
in six years, may be admitted, if the residue of the course be 
judicious. Wheat was admitted three times in five of the 



25 

above thirty-six courses, and the average per acre in the or 
der of production was as follows : No. 12, 24$ bushels ; No. 
30, 23 bushels; No. 36, 22J bushels; No. 18, 19 bushels; and 
No. 24, 15f bushels. The average of the whole product of 
wheat in the five courses was 21 bushels per acre nearly, 
which is less than the average of the whole 36 courses, though 
many of them were evidently bad. The best of the five cour- 
ses (No. 12,) was composed of beans and wheat alternately. 
The product in wheat was an average of 24| bushels in this 
course, and the aggregate value of all the crops was £5. 9s. 
Id., which is greater than the aggregate value of any of the 
thirty-six courses, except the eleventh, which exceeded it only 
lid. The smallest product in the courses having three crops 
of wheat, was the 24, which averaged only 15f bushels. This 
course had two crops of potatoes and only one of beans, anoth- 
er proof of the exhausting nature of the potatoe crop. The 
above table suggests another remark in relation to those cour- 
ses in which three crops of wheat were admitted. It is that 
the diminution in quantity of the third crop of wheat (unless 
counteracted by favorable circumstances) shows the exhaust- 
ing nature of that crop, and that considerable deterioration 
takes place by repeating it too frequently. No. 12, it is true, 
shows no diminution; but in this course each of the wheat 
crops was preceded by a crop of benns, the most favorable of 
all the crops to precede wheat. In the 36 course the third 
wheat crop was just equal to the first, but the latter was pre- 
ceded by a potatoe crop, and the former by beans. In the 
other courses in which three crops of wheat were introduced 
(No. 24, 18 and 30) the falling off of wheat was very remar- 
kable, producing in those years only 14, 15 and 16 bushels 
respectively. Upon examining the other crops in those cour- 
ses it will be seen they were not such as to aid in keeping the 
soil in heart for a third wheat crop. 

An inspection of the preceding courses will show that beans 
are a remarkably good preparatory crop for wheat. Thus in 
the following courses in which two or more bean crops were 
introduced, to wit: No. 1, 2, 3, 4, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 16, the 
wheat crops averaged from 22 to 23 bushels. On the other 
hand No. 5 and 6 having each two bean crops, produced a 



26 

small yield, which may readily be accounted for from the cir- 
cumstances of these courses each containing four grain crops. 

It has already been remarked that alternate crops of beans 
and wheat, as exhibited in No. 12, answer remarkably well. 
The 30th course shows the effects of an alternation of pota- 
toes, cabbages and beans with wheat. The 36th of potatoes, 
turnips and beans. And the 24th of potatoes, potatoes and 
beans with the same crop. It will be seen upon examination, 
that these rotations become worse and worse, in the order sta- 
ted, whether regard be had to the value of the aggregate crops, 
the product of the wheat, or deterioration of soil. 

Turnips have a good effect in ameliorating the soil and pre- 
paring it for other crops, but the turnip crop itself is of no great 
value, (see courses No. 13, 14, 15, 31.) It is is but slightly- 
exhausting and if the turnips be fed off on the ground on 
which they grew, would tend to fertilize the soil. The same 
remark is true as to cabbages. Some idea of the comparative 
value of cabbages and turnips may be formed from the follow- 
ing facts. In the 36 courses of Mr. Young's experiments, 
there were 30 crops of cabbages which averaged 5 tons 9 cwt. 
There were 18 crops of turnips which averaged 4 tons 3 cwt. 
According to the price which Mr. Young puts upon these two 
articles, the value of the average crop of the former would be 
£1 7s. 3d,, cf the latter 16s. 7d. The value of the cabkge 
crop would therefore exceed that of turnips sixty-six per cent. 
Bit it must be recollected these experiments were made in a 
climate very different from ours. To test their relative value 
here, experiments should be instituted upon our soil and in our 
climate. In relation to all the experiments, the same fact must 
be kept constantly in view. Although they will not apply in 
all their circumstances to our soil and climate, yet they furnish 
ma»V facts and useful hints that will be of great benefit to the 
judicious agriculturist. These experiments moreover demen- 
strate the importance, nay the indispensable necessity of a ju- 
dicious system of rotation in crops, in order to preserve the 
fertility of the soil. The particular Jcind of rotation suitable 
to our soil, climate and circumstances, will be examined in the 
progress of this essay.* 

* In the foregoing essay I have spoken of manures losing a part of 
their valuable ingredients by evaporation. This term is not appro- 



27 

The following rules have been laid down hi relation to a 
system of rotation of crops, for different soils, which it is im- 
portant to attend to. 

1. "For the best sorts of land, alternate green and white 
crops." 

2. "For those of full medium quality, three green crops for 
two of the grain or white kind." 

3. "For ordinary land, two of the green for one of the corn 
kind." 

Besides the green crops introduced into the several rotations 
adopted by Mr. Young, in his valuable experiment?, clover, 
tares, cole, vetches, pens, rye grass, rye, carrots, beets, pars- 
nips, &,c, hive also been admitted in the English agricultural 
system. But it will be unnecessary for me to go farther into 
the subject at present, as I shall have occasion to revert to it 
when I come to treat of Kentucky husbandry. 

Next to the introduction of the system of rotation in crops, 
the improvement of the cattle and sheep stock of England was 
the most important step towards the improvement and perfec- 
tion of her system of agriculture. Without these her green 
crops could not have been consumed nor her lands manured. 
And without improving her breeds of cattle and sheep she 
could scarcely have justified the cost of raising and fattening 
them fjr consumption. Hence tli3 system of alternate "white 
and green crops," and of improving her breeds of cattle and 
sheep mutually encouraged and sustained each other. 

Among the many distinguished Englishmen who entered 
zealously into the system of improving their breeds of cattle 
and sheep, there is no one, perhaps, who deserves more credit 
than the late Mr. Robert Bike well, of Dishley. 

There are a variety of breeds of cattle in England which 
have obtained considerable repute. I will not attempt to enu- 



priate to convey the idea intended. By the decomposition of animal 
and vegetable substances, ammonia and other gases are formed, which 
can exist only in the gaseous state, unless some other substance in 
present with which they are capable of combining-, and forming fixed 
salts. If no such substance be present, they will escape in the form 
of gas, and be entirely lo^t. 

The late work of Liebig, on organic chemistry, has thrown much 
light on the subject of preserving manures from loss by the escape of 
carbonate of ammonia and other gases. The method of accomplishing 
this important object is explained, in the essay, on the system of agri- 
culture, best adapted to Kentucky. 






28 

mcrate the whole of them but briefly refer to some of the most 
distinguished. The following have acquired considerable note. 
The long horned or Lancastershire breed; the middle horned, 
the short-horned,- the north Demons, and the Alderny. 

"It was from the midland long-horned breed of neat cattle, 
that the late Mr. Bakewell selected the stock for his great im- 
provement in these animals." 

Much attention had been previously paid in procuring and 
introducing the best cow stock of this sort by others, "and it 
was by selecting from these that Mr. Webster constituted the 
noted Canley stock." From cows of this sort and Westmore- 
land bulls, Mr. Bakewell commenced his improvement, and "by 
breeding repeatedly from the best of the same kind, constant- 
ly choosing individuals with the roundest forms and smallest 
bones, he produced that variety which has since acquired so 
high a character for their fattening property." This variety 
is what is called the Dishley or New Leicester breed, and is 
said to be principally calculated for the purpose of the grazier, 
while the original long-horns have preserved their superiority 
for the pail." 

The middle-horned breed are said, by Mr. Culley, "to be 
found in the greatest purity and of the best kind in the vicinity 
of Barnstable. These are of a high red color," and are con- 
sidered impure if they have any white about them; "they are 
thin skinned and silky in handling, feed at an early age, or ar- 
rive at maturity sooner than most other breeds. They are 
well fitted for the draft both as to hardiness and quick move- 
ment, and their shoulder points are beautifully fitted for the 
collar." Lord Somerville states that this breed "stands the 
confessed favorite or among the very first at Smithfield, where 
prejudice cannot find the way." 

The short-horned or Holderness breed are supposed to have 
been originally imported from Holland, and are still called, in 
some places, the Dutch breed. They were originally a coarse 
breed of cattle, and not estimated so highly as many other 
breeds,. Mr. Donaldson says "they are not so well adapted 
for the cart or plough as the middle-horned sert, and consider- 
ing their size and the quantity of food they devour, it is proba- 
ble, he thinks, that they are inferior to any of the above men- 
tioned." Mr. Donaldson further remarks that "a number of 



29 

eminent breeders have lately embarked in the laudable under- 
taking of improving the short-horned breed ; and from their 
knowledge, assiduity and exertions much may be expected.'" 
Mr. Lawrence says "we took the coarse, square, Dutch, beefy 
breed as the basis of this species." That "the extreme coarse- 
ness and size of the northern short-horns led, he thinks, to the 
introduction of Normnn or Alderny bulls at some period of the 
18th century." He supposes that "there never was a more 
fortunate cross, as in no other country exists so excellent a 
breed of cattle, including all the useful properties. In one, 
perhaps the mast important respect, great milking, they are 
(says he) superior and even without a rival. Their beef is fi- 
ner than the old short-horned breed, and they fatten much ear- 
lier and quicker, carrying still a vast depth of natural flesh, 
and tallowing within the first degree." He further remarks 
that "there seems but one respect in which they are, in any con- 
siderable degree, inferior to any breed which can be named, 
which is fineness of flesh. In that particular they, it is obvi- 
ous, can never equal certain other breeds without the entire 
overthrow of their Dutch basis, by a repetition of the Norman 
or some other cross, which would go to destroy the present su- 
perior breed." 

Mr. Culley observes that "the short-horned breed of cattle 
differs from the other breeds in the shortness of their horns, in 
being wider and thicker in their form or mould, consequently 
feeding to the most weight, in affording by much the greatest 
weight of tallow when fattened, in having very thin hides 
and much less hair upon them than any other breed except the 
Alderny; but that the most essential difference, he thinks, con- 
sists in the quantity of milk they give, beyond any other 
breed, there being instances of cows of this breed giving thir- 
ty-six quarts per day, and of forty eight firkins of butter be- 
ing made from a dairy of twelve cows, but the more general 
quantity is three firkins per cow, in a season, and twenty-four 
quarts of milk per day. The great quantity of milk, thinness 
of their hides and little hair are, he says, probably the reasons 
why they are tenderer than all the other kinds except the Al- 
derney." 

It is remarked by the author of the "Treatise on live stock," 
that "in comparing the breeds of long and short-horned cattle? 



30 

he long-horns excel in the thickness and firm texture of the 
hide, in the length and closeness of the hair, in their beef being 
finer grained, and more mixed and marbled than that of the 
short-horns, in weighing more in proportion to their size, and 
giving richer miik. But they are inferior to the short horns in 
giving a less quantity of milk, in weighing less upon the whole, 
in affording less tallow when killed, in being generally slower 
feeders, and in being coarser made and more leathery or bull- 
ish on the under side of the neck. In a few words, says he, 
the long-horns excel in the hide, hair and quality of the beef, 
the short-horns in the quantity of the beef, tallow, and milk." 

Mr. Lawrence, in his "treatise on cattle," remarks that "the 
red cattle of North Devon and Somerset are, without doubt, one 
of the original breeds and one of those which has preserved 
most of its primitive form. The excellence of this breed for 
labor is best proved by the fact that the fashionable substitu- 
tion of horses has made no progress in the district of these cat- 
tle, by their high repute as feeders, and for the superior excel- 
lence of their beef, which has been acknowledged for ages." 

It was remarked by Mr. B.xkewell "that the Devonshires 
could not be improved by any cross with other breeds." But it 
is suggested by Mr. Lawrence that "by a proper selection fresa 
their own stock, they might be bred somewhat more square and 
substantial, without at all detracting from their delicacy, show 
of blood or speed. Their laboring powers might be thus in- 
creased "and their quantity of beef, without either debasing 
its fine qualities or rendering necessary a larger portion of 
keep." It is added, that "these cattle have generally, for a 
a century past, commanded the best price at Smithfield." 

"It is stated that the Devonshire variety of this breed are the 
quickest working oxen in this country, and will trot well in 
harness, in point of strength they stand in the fourth or fifth 
class." As milkers they are inferior "to both the long and 
short-horns, in quantity and quality of milk," and "are cer- 
tainly no objects for the regular dairy." 

The Alderney or French breed of cattle it is stated by the 
author of the "treatise of live stock," is mostly to be met with 
about the seats of our nobility and gentry, upon account of 
their exceedingly rich milk." This breed "are very fine boned 
in general, light red or yellow in color, and their beef general- 






31 



ly yellow or very high colored, though very fine in the grain 
and well flavored." They are represented to be very tender 
and not capable of enduring the climate of the northern parts 
of England. 

There are several varieties or mixtures of the foregoing 
breeds, that have gained considerable celebrity. Among these 
are the Teeswater, (a variety of the short-horns) Suffolk duns, 
and Herefords. The latter are a variety of the '•middle- 
horns.'''' According to Mr. Marshall "they have the counte- 
nance, pleasant, cheerful, open; the forehead broad; eye full 
and lively; horns bright, taper and spreading; head small; chap 
lean; neck long and tapering; chest deep; bosom broad and 
projecting forward; shoulder-bone thin, flat, no way protuber- 
ant in bone, but full and mellow in flesh; chest full; loin broad; 
hips standing wide and level with the spine; quarter* long and 
wide at the neck; rump even with the general level of the 
back, not drooping nor standing high and sharp above the quar- 
ters; tail slender and neatly haired; barrel round and roomy; 
the carcase throughout deep and well spread.'" Mr. Lawrence 
says "of late years considerable coarseness of bone has been 
observed in the best Hereford cattle, a circumstance which is 
of trifling importance as they have proved themselves of such 
superior excellence, that no possible cross could probably im- 
prove them.'" It is further added "that breeders should reflect 
on the importance of preserving the old blood in a state of as 
great purity as possible, as they possess for some purposes, the 
most valuable breed of cattle in the kingdom, and have been 
very judicious and fortunate in nicely blending the elements of 
such a variety." 

It is proper to remark that the writers on English cnttle, 
from whom I have quoted, are not of very modern date, and 
that improvements have doubtless been progressing since the 
period in which they wrote. But it is a matter not only of cu- 
riosity but of real utility to learn the progress of improvement 
and the means by which it has been carried on so successfully. 
What can be more interesting and encouraging to eminent 
breeders of fine cattle than to learn that our present highly im- 
proved and invaluable breed of short-horned Durhams, derived 
their origin from "the coarse, square, Dutch, beefy breed, 
which devoured so much food as to render them inferior to most 



32 

of the improved breeds of cattle in England?" Nothing more 
clearly shows the great benefits which must continue to result 
from care and a proper exercise of skill in the rearing of all 
kinds of stock. 

The great improvements of the breeds of English cattle, 
next to a selection and judicious crossing of a good stock, is ob, 
viously to be ascribed to good keeping and protection from the 
weather. And these again are due to the system of rotation of 
green and £rain crops. While the system of summer fallow 
ing was in use, the best lands produced only one crop in two 
years. This practice is now wholly abandoned, and green 
crops are universally substituted in the place of summer fal- 
low, to prepare the ground for a grain crop. And as most of 
the soils in England require two green to one grain crop, to 
keep them in a proper state of fertility, it follows that a great 
quantity of the finest succulent food must be annually raised 
for their cattle and sheep stock. 

Cattle stock should receive the greatest attention and the 
utmost care during the period when they can have no benefit 
from the natural pastures, both as regards feeding and protec- 
tion. The residue of the year they will need only an abun- 
dance of rich pasture and a plentiful supply of salt. Water 
of course is indispensably necessary. 

Mr. Donaldson says that young cattle "during the first win- 
ter are almost always housed." And Mr. Marshall informs us 
that it "is a maxim pretty generally adopted among good far- 
mers, to keep their young stock as well as they can the firs t 
winter." 

I have hitherto confined myself to a description of the most 
noted breeds of English cattle, I must now speak of the in- 
troduction of the improved breeds of cattle into Kentucky. It 
is due to the spirited and enterprising gentlemen by whom 
this great benefit has been conferred upon our state, and the 
western country generally, to give as lull an account of their 
efforts as the materials within my reach will enable me to do. 

It is stated in the Farmer's Guide, that Mr. Patton, of Vir. 
ginia, about the year 1782 "purchased an imported bull of the 
long horned or beef breed, from which, with the common cows 
of the country, the owner and his neighbors bred. A few 
years afterwards, Mr. Patton obtained a full blooded bull and 



33 

cow of the short-horned or milk breed. Some time after this. 
Mr. Miller, also of Virginia, imported a bull of the beef breed 
ntid a cow of the milk breed, and afterwards purchased an 
imported bull of the milk breed. The first English cattle 
brought to Kentucky were from Patton's stock, and were a 
cross of the beef and milk breed, and this cross constitutes the 
basis of most of the English cattle now in that state." 

Mr. Benj. Harrison, a grand-son of Matthew Patton, Sr. 
gives a more minute and correct account of the introduction 
of the first English Cattle into Kentucky. He says "that 
some two or three Mr. Patton?, the sons, and a Mr. Gay, the 
son-in-law of Matthew Patton, Sr., brought some half-blooded 
English Cattle, (so called.) a bull and some heifers, as early 
as 1785 or thereabouts." These cattle, he says, "were fro:.: 
the stock of Matthew Patton, Sr." Mr. Patton emigrated to 
Kentucky about the year 1790, and "brought with him some 
six or more cows, calves of the long-horned bull before men- 
tioned." This bull Mr. Patton had purchased of a Mr. Cough, 
of Maryland, an importer of British cattle Mr. Harrison 
personally knew the cows mentioned above. "They were 
large, somewhat coarse and rough, with very long horns, wide 
between the points, turning up considerably, their bags and 
teats very large, differing widely in appearance from the long 
horned stock of the importation of 1817." From this des- 
cription it would seem that the first cattle imported iuto Ken- 
tucky of Mr. Patton's stock, could not have been "a cross of 
the beef and milk breed," as stated in the Farmer's Guido. 
This work is quite indefinite as to the time when Mr. P.itton 
"obtained a full blooded bull and cow of the short-horned or milk 
breed." It is probable the allusion is to the bull and heifer 
which Mr. Harrison speaks of as follows: "About the yenr 
1795, Matthew Patton, Sr. procured from the before mention- 
ed Gough, through his son William Patton, a bull called Mars 
and a heifer called Venice, both of which were sold by Gough 
as full blooded English cattle, but like the importation of 1817, 
they had no other pedigree." As Mr. Harrison had the best 
opportunity of knowing the facts in relation to these cattle, bv 
frequent intercourse and conversation with his grand-father, 
Matthew Patton, Sr., I must conclude, contrary to the state- 
ment of the Farmer's Guide, that the first cattle brought to 



u 

Kentucky by the sons and son-in-law, and by Mr. Patton 
himself, were only part-blooded and had no mixture of short- 
horn or milk breed. From Mr. Harrison's description, Mars 
and Venice were probably of the short-horned breed, and the 
first of that description of cattle introduced into Kentucky.* 
Venice produced two bull calves by Mars, and then died. 
One of these was taken to Ohio, near Chillicothe, by William 
Patton, and was probably the first introduction of the improved 
breed into that state. The other remained in Jessamine coun- 
ty, in this state, being the property of Roger Patton. Mars 
continued in the possession of Matthew Patton, Sr. till his 
death, in 1803, and was purchased at the sale of his estate, by 
a Mr. Peoples, who soon after removed to Montgomery coun- 
ty, where Mars shortly after died. 

Many bulls, of the half blood, by Mars, remained; and serv- 
ed to improve considerably, the native breeds of the neighbor- 
hood. Mr. Harrison adds, that the produce of Mars by a 
cross "on the half long-horned cows," brought to Kentucky 
by Matthew Patton, Sr., "would be considered good even at 
this day." 

Having traced the origin of the Patton stock, I will now no- 
tice that which is commonly called the Miller stock. 

In the year 1803, "Daniel Harrison, (the father of Benja- 
min Harrison,) James Patton and James Gay, purchased of 
Mr. Miller, of Virginia, who was an importer of English cat- 
tle, a two year old bull called Pluto, who certified that he was 
got by an imported bull and came out of an imported cow, but 
gave no other pedigree. Pluto was a dark red or brindle, and 
when full grown, was the largest bull, (says Mr. Benjamin 
Harrison,) I have ever seen, with an uncommonly small head 
and neck, light, short horns, very heavy fleshed, yet not car- 
rying so much on the most desirable points as the fashionable 
stock of the present day, with small bone for an animal of his 
weight."! Pluto "was bred upon the cows produced by the 
Patton bull Mars, which, (says Mr. Harrison,) produced stock 
that has been rarely excelled in all the essential qualities of 
the cow kind. They were unquestionably the best milkers 



*See Mr. Harrison's account of the introduction of English cattle 
into Kentucky, Franklin Farmer, Vol. IT, No. 25. 

f£ee Mr. Harrison's account before referred to. 



35 

that have ever been in Kentucky, taken as a stock, in the gen- 
eral, and but little inferior in point of form, to the most ap- 
proved stock of the present day, and of greater size" About 
the year 1812, Pluto was taken to the state of Ohio, and died 
shortly afterwards. 

About the year 1810, Capt. William Smith, of Fayette coun- 
ty, purchased of the same Mr. Miller the bull called Buzzard. 
He is represented by Mr. Harrison to have been very large, 
(taller than Pluto but not so heavy,) but coarse. The produce 
of Buzzard was not held in high repute, on account of coarse- 
ness, and the disinclination to early maturity." The sire of 
Buzzard was the same as that of Piuto, "but came out of a 
different cow," 

About the year 1813, Mr. Inskep brought with him from 
Virginia, a large bull of the Miller and Patton stock, c 
Inskep^s brindle. Mr. Harrison represents him to have I 
large and coarse, and as a mixture of the long and short-horn- 
ed breed. 

About the year 1814, Messrs. Hutchcraft and Woltcn pro- 
cured from Ohio a large bull called Shaker. Mr. Harrison 
says this bull "was a descendant of Mr. Miller's stock, but not 
by Miller's imported bull." 

I have now given as full an accouut of the introduction of 
the Miller stock, as my information will enable me to 
That and the Patton stock previously introduced, had doubt- 
less a considerable effect in improving the native breeds, in the 
several neighborhoods to which they were brought, whence 
they spread to some extent into various other counties. The 
author of this essay procured a pair of this stock, which were 
raised by Col. Danialson, of Clarke county, many years ago. 
They were what were called the milk breed. Their horns 
were of a medium length, and were no doubt a mixture of the 
long and short-horned breeds, the blood of the latter predomi- 
nating. They proved to be excellent milkers. 

Mr. D.iniel Harrison, (says Mr. B. Harrison,) about the 
year 1814, "procured a bull and heifer from a Mr. Ringold, an 
importer of English cattle, either of Maryland or Virginia.'' 
This was probably Mr. Samuel Ringold of Washington county, 
Maryland. The author of this essay was well acquainted with 
Mr. Ringold, and knows that he was a breeder of the impro- 



3G 

ved English cattle, but ho was too young- to have his attention 
drawn sufficiently to the subject to be able to say what partic- 
ular variety he cultivated. Mr. Benjamin Harrison says these 
cattle were called the Carey Cattle,. "They were pied, red 
and white, were rather small, light fleshed, raw boned stock r 
and had no claims to merit, only for milking qualities." The 
year 1817 is an important era in relation to the introduction 
of English cattle into the state of Kentucky. 

During that year Mr, Lewis Sanders, then of Fayette coun- 
tv, imported, directly from England, "four short-horned bulls, 
four short-horned cows, two long-horned bulls and two long- 
horned cows."* These all arrived in the United States, but 
one of the short-horned cows died in the state of Maryland,. 
the balance safely reached the state of Kentucky. One of 
the short -horned bulls was sold to Gen. Tho. Fletcher, of Bath 
county, "another was taken to the southern part of the state by 
Mr. Tegarden, and sold by him to the Shakers, who took him 
to the Wabash country, leaving in the neighborhood of Lexing- 
ton, Tccumseh and San Martin bulls, and Mrs. Moote, the 
Durham cow, and the Teeswater cow. From these five ani- 
mals (says Mr. Sanders,) have mainly sprung the stock of 
1817. Mr. Sanders continued to breed from this stock for a 
number of years, and is of opinion that they rather declined, 
which he attributes to his breeding too long in the same fami- 
ly. In 1831 "he procured a bull and three cows from Col. 
Powel's celebrated stock ; crossing these with the stock of 
1817, was highly beneficial, (which says Mr.. Sanders), has 
been continued with singular advantage. The cattle obtained 
by Mr, Sanders from Goh Powell were accompanied by regu- 
lar pedigrees, and hence their blood could be traced, in the 
English herd book. But those imported in 1817 were without 
pedigrees, and consequently could not be traced back, by re- 
cord evidence, to the improved short-horned breed* 

Mr. James Prentice, of Lexington, shortly after Mr. San- 



*See Mr. Sanders' report on cattle, Franklin Farmer extra, Apiil 
29, 1840. The Farmer's Guide, page 150, states that these cattle 
were imported by Lewis Sanders, William Smith, and William H. Te- 
garden. This is an error, occasioned probably from the circumstance 
of Mr. Smith and Mr. Tegarden having become interested in the cat- 
tle after they were imported, or while on their way to the United 
Stales. 



37 

ders 1 importation of 1817, imported two short-horned bulls, 
which were also without regular pedigrees. 

Shortly after the return of the Hon. H. Clay from Ghent, 
where he acted as one of the embassy for treating of peace 
with Great Britain, he imported from England some beautiful 
Hereford cattle, then esteemed by many as superior to the 
short-horned Durhams. This breed is still preferred by some 
to the short-horns, but the latter, in public estimation, has 
greatly taken the lead, and is now the fashionable stock of the 
day. 

Subsequent to these importations many enterprising gentle- 
men entered, with spirit, into the importation of cattle from 
England, with the view of giving to the west all the advan- 
tages of the most perfect breed. Among those who engaged 
in this highly useful undertaking were the Hon. H. Clay and 
his son H. Clay, Jr., Walter Dun, and Samuel Smith, of Fay- 
ette county; Dr. Martin, of Clarke, Lewis Shirley of Jefferson, 
Jefferson Scott and Letton and Fisher, of Bjurbon; the Lex- 
ington and Fayette importing company, and the Ohio import- 
ing company. There were other gentlemen engaged in the 
praiseworthy undertaking of improving our cattle stock, but 
my information will not enable me to designate them by name. 
One of the most recent importations was of seven short-horn- 
ed Durhams by Walt and Beggs, of Louisville, in February, 
1840. 

The importations made as above, have laid the most ample 
foundation for an excellent breed of cattle. All that is now 
requisite to perpetuate their good qualities is good keeping and 
suitable protection during the winter months, and the exercise 
of due care, skill and judgment, in crossing different breeds^ 
so as to improve and not deteriorate the stock we now have. 
Much injury may result from injudicious crossing of different 
races of cattle. In general, it is most safe to cross only with 
the most perfect in form of the same race, and none but the 
most skilful breeders should attempt to improve a stock already 
good, by crossing them with a different breed. By breeding 
only from the best of the same hind, constantly selecting 
those of the most perfect form, and that produce the greatest 
abundance and richest milk, the breeder will be sure not to, 
deteriorate his stock. 

D* 



38 

Next to cattle, sheep are the most important stock, with a 
view to preserve and improve the fertility of the soil, and to 
renovate that which has been exhausted by bad husbandry, 
I deem it necessary, therefore, to appropriate a part of this es- 
say to sheep husbandry. England is quite as celebrated for 
her breeds of sheep as cattle. They may be divided into the 
long and short wooled kinds. Of the former, the most noted 
are the following, and they stand, in point of size, in the or- 
der named, 

1. Teeswater — wethers weighing, per quarter, at two 
years old, 30 

2. Lincoln, do. 25 

3. Dartmoor or Bampton do 25 

4. Cots wold, do 24 

5. New Liecester, do 22 

6. Romney marsh, do 22 
These bear fleeces from 8 to 11- pounds, in the yolk. The 

Lincolns bear the heaviest. The Teeswater, Cotswold and 
Dartmoor wethers average nine pounds each, and the New Lie- 
cester and Romney marsh eight pounds. These breeds all 
bear very coarse wool, which forty years ago, sold in England 
at lOd sterling (20 cents.) Of the short wooled kinds of na- 
tive sheep, the most noted are the Ryelands and Southdown?. 
Southdown wethers average, at two years old, eighteen 
pounds per quarter, the Ryelands only 14 at 3^ years old. 
They are a small race of sheep, but bear finer fleeces 
than any of the native sheep of England. The Southdowns 
are the next finest. Their wool, at the period above mention- 
ed, was worth two shillings and four pence sterling, (56 cents,) 
and their fleeces average about three pounds. 

The Teeswater are the largest race of sheep in England, 
and are prevalent also "in the rich, fine, fertile, enclosed lands 
on the banks of the Tees, in Yorkshire." They are supposed 
to have sprung from the Lincolns, being an improvement of 
that stock, as regards size, with little attention to the quality 
of the wool. They are said to be "a breed only calculated for 
warm, rich pastures, where they are kept in small lots, in small 
enclosures, and well supported with food in- severe winter 
seasons. 1 ' 

The Lincolns of the improved breed are said to be "among 



39 

the best, if not actually the best long wooled sheep in Eng- 
land. 1 " The flavor of the Lincoln mutton is superior to that of 
Dishley; and is a great favorite at Smithfield. Their wool is 
from ten to eighteen inches long, but very coarse, being only 
fit for combing. 

The New Leicester or Dishley is an improved breed of sheep, 
which, according to Mr Culley, "is readily distinguished from 
the other long wooled sorts, by having fine lively eyes, clean 
heads, without horns, straight, broad, flat backs, round or bar- 
rel shaped bodies, fine small bones, thin pelts, and a disposition^ 
to make fat, at an early age." Mr. Culley adds his testimony 
in favor of the "superiority in the fineness of the grain and fla- 
vor of the mutton, to that of the other sheep of the long wooled 
kind." But upon this point other authors do not concur. The 
author of the "treatise upon live stock," says the New Leices- 
ter mutton is the most finely grained of all the large long 
wooled species, but of a flavor bordering on the insipid.'''' Mr. 
Livingston in his admirable essay on sheep, speaking of Mr. 
B.ikewell's improvement of the Dishley stock, says he was of 
the opinion "that fat upon the rump and ribs was more impor- 
tant than tallow, and accordingly he produced sheep, on which 
it is there found five or six inches thick." He further re- 
marks that "his sheep arc, on that account, less valuable to the 
epicure than the laborer, with whom they, in some sort, sup- 
ply the place of pork." 

The wool of this breed is "the shortest and finest of the 
combing wools, the length of the staple being six or seven:, 
inches." 

The late Mr. Robert Bike well originated this improved va- 
riety, and it is supposed the base of the improvement was a 
cross between the Lincolns and Ryelands, the latter giving 
fineness to the wool and grain of the mutton. This breed is 
admitted "to be the most perfectly formed, and consequently 
more disposed to fatten quickly, and to contain a much larger 
proportion of meat, on an equal weight of bone." They are 
said also to be more disposed to fatten "than other breeds of the 
same size of carcass-" but are alleged to be objectionable be- 
cause of their "fattening too much, and the mutton, in conse- 
quence becoming less delicate in, its flavor than other breeds 
that require a greater length of time in the process." 



40 

The Cots wold variety are also of the finer species of comb- 
ing wool, and, like the New Leicesters, are said to have derived 
this feature from a cross with the Ryelands. 

The Romney marsh's are a large breed, carrying wool suit- 
able for combing, of rather a fine quality. They acquire their 
name from the marsh on which they are chiefly raised, and 
are said to be well adapted to be "fattened on the rich kinds of 
marsh pasture, and on those which extend from Hastings to 
Rye, in Kent." The author of the "synopsis of husbandry,' 1 
says that "a convincing proof of the great value of this breed 
of sheep, as well as of the land on which they are fed, is that 
from six to eight wethers may be fattened per acre. 

This breed would be a valuable variety, for the flat and 
marshy lands which prevail in many parts of the north wes- 
tern states, and which are also found in some places on the bor- 
ders of the Ohio and other rivers of Kentucky. 

The Dartmoor or Bampton variety are prevalent in the dis- 
tricts from which they derive their name. The length of their 
wool is about the same as of tho Rcmney marsh sort. These 
breeds have been improved by a cross with the New Liecester, 
which it is said, "will in some situations bring forward wethers 
at twenty months old, weighing twenty-two pounds the quar- 
ter, with a shear of eight pounds of yolk wool to the fleece." 
The mutton is said to be of good quality. It should be remar- 
ked that in England all the large breeds of sheep are raised 
chiefly for the mutton, and that wool is only a secondary ob- 
ject. The following statement will give a pretty correct idea 
of the usuaK price of mutton in England. 

Mr. Dawson, of Berthorp, in the year 1796, sold two hun- 
dred two shear wethers, (two and a half years old) at three 
pounds sterling round. And the average of his sales for the 
six preceding years were as follows: 1790,35 s.; 1791, 35 s..; 
1792, 43 s.; 1793, 38 s ; 1794, 44 s.; 1795, 50 s. These 
were New Leicesters, which had been twice sheared. If 
each sharing produced eight pounds, (a large allowance for 
young sheep) the wool at lOd, would have yielded 13s. 4d. or 
six and eight pence per annum. Put the average of the 
sales of each wether during the seven years was 43s. 7d. 
Thus the amount received for mutton was six and a half times 
as much, annually, as was received for wool It will be per- 



41 

ceived that the price of mutton gradually rose from 35s. to 6& 
At the latter rate, the mutton produced annually, nine times as 
much as the annual produce of wool. The contrast between the 
wool and mutton, of the larger breeds, such as the Tecswater, 
Lincoln, Bampton and Cotswold, would be still more remar- 
kable. It should also be recollected that since the year 1790, 
all kinds of meat have risen, whilst coarse wool has remained 
about stationary,* and consequently that, at this time, the dis- 
parity between the price of wool and mutton would be still 
greater than it was in 1793. 

I desire that these circumstances may be borne in mind, 
when I come to treat of fine wooled sheep and of the sheep 
husbandry of Kentucky. 

Of the various native breeds of fine wooled sheep in Eng- 
land, I propose to speak only of the Southdowns and Ryelands. 
The latter were formerly held in high repute, in consequence 
of their extreme fineness of wool, but since the introduction 
of the Spanish merinoes, (1792) which far excel the Ryelands 
in fineness of staple, they have in some measure, lost their 
former high reputation. They are, however, considered an 
excellent stock on which to cross the merino breed. The 
half bloods from this cross, produce a fleece, it is said, avera- 
ging five pounds in the yolk, and worth 3s. sterling, (72 cts.) 

The Southdowns are next to the Ryelands, as regards firm- 
ness of wool. Mr. Culley describes this variety "as having no 
horns, grey faces and legs, fine bones, long. small necks,, and 
rather low before, high on the shoulders, and light in the fore 
quarters, sides good, loin tolerably broad, back bone rather 
high, thigh full, twist good, mutton fine in grain, and well fla- 
vored, wool short, very close and fine, in the length of the sta- 
ple from two to three inches, weight per quarter of wethers, 
at two years old, eighteen pounds. This breed prevails "on 
the dry chalky downs, in Sussex, as well as in the hills of Sur- 
ry and Kent," It is said to have been "much improved, re- 
cently, both in carcass and wool, being much enlarged for- 
ward.'" Thev are considered as an excellent sort for less 



*Mr. Livingston, in 1810, sixteen years after the above date, states 
the price of Teeswater, Lincoln, New Leicester, Cotswold, 
Bampton, and Romney marsh, at one shilling per pound. Since that 
period, it is believed it has again fallen, at least to its former price, 
lOd. See his essay on sheep, p. 100. 



42 

fertile and hilly pasture?, as feeding closed They are "hardy 
and disposed to fatten quickly." They come quickly to matu- 
rity, the wethers "being seldom kept longer than two years 
old, and often fed at eighteen months." They are also "ca- 
pable of travelling well, and of resisting the effects of expo- 
sure to cold." The celebrated Mr. Coke, now Lord Leicester, 
is said to have the best and finest Southdowns in England. 

An English writer comparing the Southdowns and Norfolks , 
(a very noted breed of the fine wooled sort) says "in short, the 
leading characteristics of the high aud full bred Norfolk and 
Southdown sheep seem, upon comparison, to be chiefly these, 
the wool of both is found to be of the first clothing quality, but 
the larger quantity is produced by the Southdowns; the mut- 
ton of both is equally delicious. But the quiet, gentle South- 
downs, in the pasture, must be opposed to the wild, impatient 
ramblings of the Norfolk, whose constant exercise not only ex- 
cites continual appetite, but at the same time occasions a con- 
siderable waste in the pasture, by treading down and unneces- 
sarily spoiling a great deal of food they do not eat." 

It is further remarked that "the hardiness ot the South- 
downs, enduring wet and cold lodging and a greater degree 
of abstinence and fatigue than the Norfolk, in the fold, is a su- 
periority of much moment, and only to be equalled by another 
which they possess, in a very superior degree, which is that of 
doing well upon coarse and sour pastures. It is added "that 
the Southdowns, compared with the Norfolk, are equally good 
turnip sheep; and for every possible purpose, whether for their 
flesh, for their wool, for breeding, for folding, or for the butch- 
er, they demand a less supply of food and of an inferior qual- 
ity to that which, in every situation, would appear indispensav 
ble to the well doing of the Norfolks." 

The foregoing statements and facts present a very favorable 
view of the Southdown variety of sheep. But their merits are 
still more strongly sustained by a course of experiments, made 
by the Earl of Egremont to test the relative value of the New 
Leicester, Southdown, Romney marsh and some half bloods, 
being a cross of the New Leicester and Southdowns. It would 
tcc:upy too much space to give the whole course of his experi- 
ments in detail, but the following is the substance of them: In 
the month of August he put in the same enclosure, wether 



43 

lambs of the preceding spring, as follows: 17 Southdowns, 19 
New Leicester, 12 half bloods, across of the New Leicester 
and Southdown, and 7 Romney marsh. They were all kept 
alike till June of the following year, when 12 of the South- 
downs and all the half bloods were found in marketable condi- 
tion; and the former were sold at 34s. and the latter at 33s. 
sterling. None of the New Leicesters or Romney marshes 
were in marketable condition. This experiment shows the su- 
periority of the Southdowns and half bloods, where it is desira- 
ble to sell at an early age. 

A part of each kind was kept over for further experiment, 
and it was found that between June and the 7th of September, 
(ten weeks,) the Southdowns had gained 13 per cent; the New 
Leicesters 21 per cent; the half bloods 13 per cent, and the 
Romney marshes 14 per cent. Here was a gain of 8 per cent. 
by the New Leicester and 1 percent by the Romney marshes 
over the half bloods and Southdowns. This is naturally to be 
accounted for so far as relates to the Southdowns, from the cir- 
cumstance of the two sorts, which had gained, being of a larger 
breed than the Southdowns. It will be recollected that tho 
New Leicester wethers, at two years old, weigh 22 pounds to 
the quarter; the Romney marshes 25, and the Southdowns on- 
ly 18. They were now (7th September) about one and n 
half years old, and consequently it was to have been expected 
that the large?' breeds, which had fallen back during the win- 
ter, should increase more rapidly during the summer, than the 
smaller ones, in order to attain their appropriate weight at two 
years old. They were weighed again the 1st of December 
following, when the Southdowns had lost 3 per cent., the New 
Leicesters 2 per cent., the half bloods 4 per cent., and the 
Romney marshes had gained one third of one per cent. All 
the sorts, it will be observed, must have continued to gain for 
some time after the 7th of September, and the larger breeds, 
for the reasons before stated, must have gained more rapidly 
than the smaller ones, till winter set in. At this period all 
would begin to loose, and the loss exhibited above was not the 
whole loss. What had been gained between the 7th Septem- 
ber and the period at which they began to fall oft', should have 
been added. If these circumstances be taken into considera- 
tion, this experiment would be very favorable to the South- 



44 

downs ; but the next experiment is still more decisive in their 
favor. They were weighed again the first of March following, 
when it was found the Southdowns had lost, between the first 
of December and first of March, four per cent., the New Lei- 
cesters 14 per cent, the half bloods 10 per cent., and the Rcra- 
ney marshes 5 per cent. During the second as well as during 
the first winter, the Southdowns exhibited a decided advantage 
over the New Leicesters. The Romney marshes, it will be 
seen, stand upon almost as good a foundation as the South- 
downs, and did much better than the New Leicesters. 

The next experiment shows, that from the first of December 
to June 19th the Southdowns gained 13 per cent.; the New 
Leicesters 9 per cent; the half bloods 9 per cent., and the Rem 
ney marshes 17 per cent. Here again the advantage is deci 
dedly in favor of the Southdowns and Romney marshes. 

The experiment was continued through the third summer, 
when, as might be expected, the New Leicesters again took 
the lead ; and as the result of the whole experiment, it is sta- 
ted "that the profit for two years and two months feed adding 
the value of the wool, was 5d and a fraction per week for the 
Romney marshes, and from 4d to 4^d for the New Leicesters, 
from the time of their being lambed. The former part of the 
experiment had shown that the Southdowns and half bloods, at 
the age of 64 weeks, gave 7d per week profit 

Thus it appears by a course of experiments fully and fairly 
made, by the Earl of Egremont, that the Southdowns, even fo 
the purpose of mutton, are decidedly more profitable than the 
New Leicesters. And this result follows without allowing 
any thing for the increased quantity of food consumed by the 
New Leicesters, or for the superiority of the mutton of the 
Southdowns. It is a well established general principle, that 
the larger the animal the more food they will require. Here 
the Southdowns, the smaller animal, upon the same kind of 
keep, gave 7d profit per week, at the age of 64 weeks, whilst 
the New Leicesters, at the age of 113 weeks, gave a profit of 
only 4d to 4|d per week. The wool of the Southdowns is al- 
so more valuable. Those of a good quality will average three 
pounds, worth 2s 6d (60 cents) per pound, whilst the wool of 
the New Leicesters averaged (ewes and wethers) about seven 
pounds, is worth only lOd (20 cents.) The annual product of 



v r 



45 

the wool of the Southdowns would be ISO cents, and of the 
New Leicesters only 140 cents.* 

I have been induced to go into these details in relation to 

the merits of the New Leicester and Southdown sheep, and 
of the Romney marsh breed, in consequence of a strong im- 
pression having been made in this state, that the New Leices- 
ters would be the best stock for us to adopt with a yiew to 
mutton and common clothing wool. I am decidedly of opinion 
that for both purposes the Southdown breed of sheep would be 
greatly preferable. The mutton of the latter, in point of fla- 
vor, is greatly superior, the wool is every way better adapted to 
clothing purposes, the sheep are hardier, thrive better in win- 
ter, and would suit admirably the hilly regions, which predom- 
inate in the eastern and south-eastern borders of the state of 
Kentucky. I am also of opinion that the Romney marsh breed 
would be finely adapted to the flat and marshey lands, which 
predominate in some of the new states, and which are also 
found on the borders of some of our rivers. 

The New Leicesters will become valuable when we engage 
in manufacturing worsted, which will require combing wool, 
but in the meantime the best of our native breeds, improve;! 
the introduction of the Southdowns and Merinoes, will be bet- 
ter adapted to our circumstances and our wants. 

I have hitherto treated only of the native sheep of Great 
Britain. It is wonderful that a people, who paid so much at- 
tention to sheep husbandry, and who were so extensively en- 
gaged in the manufacture of fine wool, should so long have to- 
tally neglected to introduce the merino breed, confessedly the 
finest wooled sheep that existed any where in Europe. This 
was owing, perhaps, in part to their prejudices in favor of their 
own celebrated Ryelands and Southdowns, and in part to an 
opinion that the merinoes could not exist in the climate of Eng- 
land, or that if they could, they would so degenerate as to be 
less valuable than their own native sheep. It was imagined 
Spain "possessed some peculiar advantages of soil and climate, 
which it would be in vain to seek for elsewhere." And it was 
believed, says a British writer, "that the superior fineness of 
the Spanish fleeces was derived entirely from some peculiarity 
of the soil and climate." This opinion was so firmly fixed, says 

♦These estimates are made in reference to the English market. 

E 



46 

the same writer, "that he who asserted the contrary, was re- 
garded by agriculturists and clothiers as a speculative theorist, 
only deserving pity." Yet long anterior to the period when 
these notions were so strongly predominant in England, the 
merino breed had been introduced into Sweden. As early as 
1739, "the Swedish government, for the promotion of this 
race, instituted a school of shepherds, under the direction of 
Mr. Alstrcemer (who first introduced the merino sheep into 
Sweden in 1723,) and public funds were appointed for grant- 
ing premiums to those who sold rams of this breed.'" These 
premiums were continued up to the year 1792, when being no 
longer necessary, they were discontinued. 

Merinoes were also introduced into Saxony as early as 
1765, and they were attended to with such assiduity, skill and 
judgment, that the flocks of that country, in point of fineness 
of staple, soon came to excel the best Spanish merinoes. 

These examples did not escape the notice of France. In 
1776, this celebrated breed of sheep was introduced into that 
country by Mr. Traudain, intendant of finances, under the di- 
rection of the celebrated naturalist, D'Aubenton. This ex- 
periment succeeded so well as to convince the government, 
"that it was easy to introduce and preserve a race of sheep in 
France, producing superfine wool; and, in the year 1786, a 
selection of 376 rams and ewes, from the finest flocks in Spain, 
was made and were conducted, under the care of a mayor. t.> 
the farm of Rambouillet." It was not until after all these ex- 
periments, that an effort was made to introduce these celebra- 
ted sheep into England The first effort was made by individ- 
uals, in 1787, but the importation then made, attracted but lit- 
tle attention, and scarcely excited any interest. "The sheep, 
however, (says an English writer) lived, though treated in the 
English manner, and the wool had not deteriorated." These 
facts having proved that the merino race of sheep could bo 
naturalized in Great Britain, the then reigning monarch, 
George III, in 1792, "obtained from the marquis of Campoa- 
lonjo, five rams and thirty-five ewes, of the Nigrette race." 

It might have been supposed, now that the sovereign of the 
country had taken a personal interest in introducing the meri- 
no breed of sheep, that all prejudices against them would have 
subsided ; but such was not the fact. "Although the wool was 






47 

admitted to be equally fine, with the best wool imported from 
Spain," yet the manufacturers would not give the same price 
for it, "fearing that it might not prove equally good when man- 
ufactured;" and the king was compelled to have his wool man- 
ufactured on his own account, "to demonstrate its fitness for 
superfine cloth.'" So slow is the progress of truth in over- 
throwing prejudice and error. 

The merits of the merino breed fully triumphed over all ob- 
stacles and are now deservedly held, in Great Britain, in tho 
very highest repute, both as regards the pure breed and the 
crosses upon the best English stock. It has been ascertained 
that a cross of the best merino rams upon the finest Ryeland 
ewes, requires^ye crosses to produce as fine wool from the mix- 
ed brcod as from the pure stock. Thus a cross upon the Rve- 
land ewes, bearing wool worth 3s. will produce a breed bearing 
wool worth 3s. 7d and each subsequent cross will add 7d to the 
value of the wool, so that after the fifth cross, the offspring 
will bear wool worth as much as the Spanish, that is 69. per 
pound, provided the rams and ewes are of ihe finest quality at 
the commencement of the cross. This shows the error of the 
opinion, that the New Leicester, or any other of the coarse 
long wooled sheep, will furnish a good cross for the merino 
race. 

Next to the Ryelands, Southdown ewes, of the finest quality, 
furnish the best cross of any of the native sheep of Great 
Britain. 

The United States, not having commenced manufacturing 
fine wool, at the period when the merinoes were introduced in- 
to England, had not the same inducement to make an effort to 
naturalize that valuable race. But not long afterwards, Chan- 
cellor Livingston, our ambassador at the court of France, 
studying to promote the interests of his country, by all the 
means in his power, turned his attention to this subject, and in 
the year 1802, selected "two pair of the finest merinoes he could 
find," from the improved flocks of France, "and sent them over 
under the care of one of his own servants, intending to follow 
them by others."* These, says Mr. Livingston, "were the 
first ever imported into the United States." 



♦Livingston's essay on sheep, p. 9. 



48 

Shortly after this period, Col. Humphreys, of Connecticut, 
introduced, directly from Spain, a considerable number of this 
valuable race. These importations laid the foundation of the 
merino breed of sheep, which are now so numerous in the Uni- 
ted States. They were first introduced into Kentucky by Mr. 
Seth Adams, in the year 1S09. A small proportion only, of 
his flock were of the full bloods, the residue being the produce 
of a cross of the native sheep of the country. Shortly after- 
wards, Mr Prentiss, Mr. Lewis Sanders, and other spirited 
gentlemen, introduced a number of the pure blooded merinoes 
la the year 1829, the Hon. Henry Clay imported from the 
western part of Pennsylvania, a flock of fifty full bloods, be- 
ing a selection from one of the best flocks in Washington coun- 
ty. These, and other importations, have laid the foundation 
of the merino flocks in Kentucky, and nothing is now wanting, 
but sufficient attention and skill, in the management of our 
sheep husbandry, to secure to us a full participation of the 
great advantages which must accrue to the United States from 
the rearing of fine wooled sheep. 

The political contests of the day and the selfish views of 
ambitious aspirants, may, for a time, depress the interests of 
agriculture and of sheep husbandry in particular, but it is im- 
possible that this can continue to be the case for any great 
length of time. When, we look at our present population and 
take into consideration the well established fact, that it increa- 
ses in a ratio of thirty-three and a third per cent, every ten 
years; that our exports, except a single article, (cotton,) instead 
of increasing in a ratio with our population, is continually di- 
minishing; when we see the results of our present system r 
(depending upon foreigners to manufacture for us what we 
could so easily manufacture for ourselves) a system encour- 
aged and promoted by the legislation of the national govern- 
ment, to be periodical revulsions in trade of the most alarming 
and distressing character, arising, in a great degree, from our 
too extensive reliance upon foreigners to supply us with cloth- 
ing, blankets and other necessaries. When we take a calm 
and dispassionate view of these and other kindred facts, it is 
impossible to come to any other conclusion than that our gov- 
ernment will be compelled to abandon the absurd idea of en^ 
tering into a free competition with nations who aro so far in 



49 

advance of us, in the perfection of their system of manufac- 
tures, and who, in consequence of the low price of labor, can 
alwsys break down and destroy our infant establishments, be- 
fore they have acquired sufficient stability to enable them 
to compete j with their foreign rivals. When we shall 
learn wisdom from experience, we shall be compelled 
(though perhaps* not till after long and severe suffering) to 
do, as all wise nations have done before us. protect our agricul- 
tural interests by giving protection to those who manufacture 
the ? % aw products of our agriculture. When this period shall 
arrive, our merino flocks, as well as those of other races, will 
be found to be of immense value, and of great importance to 
the general interests of the country. Wool to the amount of 
two hundred millions of pounds would be produced, (if due en- 
couragement shall be afforded,) before our population shall 
have reached thirty millions, which will happen within the 
next twenty years; and in ten years thereafter, it will proba- 
bly have reached forty millions* What vast results, then, 
are to spring from a proper attention to sheep husbandry ! 
How immensely will the wealth and comfort of our citizens be 
promoted, and the fertility of the soil increased by rearing and 
feeding 68.000,000 of sheep! Bat the direct advantages re- 
sulting from sheep husbandry, will not be all. Other agricul- 
tural pursuits will be greatly promoted first, by diverting a por- 
tion of agricultural industry from those branches, which have 
been pushed to too great an excess; and secondly, by the new 

*The AJbany Cultivator estimates the "number of sheep, in the 
wool growing states of the north, at 15,000,000." Supposing them 
10 average three pounds per fleece, the clip of 1830 would be forty- 
five millions. From this fact it can scarcely be doubted the product 
of the whole United States, if sheep husbandry should be properly 
encouraged, would be 200,000,000 of pounds, when our population 
shall have reached 30,000,000. The following table shows the popu- 
lation of the United States under the different census', from 1790 to 
1830, and what it would have been upon a ratio of increase of 33i 
per cent, for each ten years. The first column shows the actual cen- 
sus, the second the estimated number, according to the above ratio. 

1790 3,929,326 Estimated at 33* for 10 years, 

1800 5,303,666 5,239,101 

1810 7,239,903 6,985,468 

1820 9,625,734 9,313,957 

1830 12,859,570 12,418,609 

The abo^e table shows the actual increase from the yeur 1790 to 
1830, to be more than 33i for each ten years. Allowing the increase 
to progress according to that ratio, we shall have in 1840, 17,146,093; 
1850, 22,861,417; 1860, 30,481,903, and in 1870, 40,642,590. 

E* 



50 

market which will be furnished for agricultural products, by 
the numerous class of individuals who will be employed in 
manufacturing the immense quantity of wool, which the Uni- 
ted States are capable of growing. Too much attention can- 
not be given to this important subject. Fine wool, as well as 
that of medium quality, (such as will be produced by the South- 
downs and a merino cross upon that valuable stock,) and the 
product of our native flocks, will all be objects of much impor- 
tance. And when the manufacture of worsted stuff goods 
shall be extensively introduced, ccmbing wool will also be in 
great demand. 

Sheep husbandry is important for three purposes: 1 Wool; 
2 Mutton and tallow; 3 As a means of manuring and fertili- 
zing our soil. I have sufficiently treated of the two first; the 
third is too important to be passed over in silence. I have 
heretofore suggested that much manure may be saved by fold- 
ing sheep of nights. It is doubtful, however, whether the in- 
jury to the health of sheep will not be too serious to justify that 
practice, in warm weather; but in cold frosty weather, folding 
of sheep of nights may be safely resorted to. But whenever 
the practice of folding, for a length of time, in the same place, 
is pursued, the pen should be kept well littered with straw, as 
well for the comfort of the sheep as with a view of increasing 
the quantity of manure. 

It will be most convenient to have the sheep fold adjoining 
a shelter, under which the racks and troughs are placed. The 
shelter should be entirely open on one side, with a south or 
south-eastern exposure and enclosed on the opposite side, With 
a suitable building at each end, one for hay and the other for 
roots, for winter and early spring feeding, till the pastures are 
sufficiently advanced. It would be most convenient to have 
the sheep house and fold adjoining a meadow, on which the 
sheep should be suffered to range during the day. This will 
be beneficial to the health of the sheep, and their manure will 
not only be saved but distributed without the expense of haul- 
ing. With a view to a like saving of manure, during that part 
of the year in which the sheep are not folded of nights, they 
should be suffered to range, as far as circumstances will admit, 
upon grounds intended for future cultivation. 

In England, it is a common practice to feed off their turnip 



51 

crop to their sheep, upon the ground upon which it grew. This 
is done by enclosing a small space with hurdles, into which the 
sheep are put, and continued until they consume all the tur- 
nips growing within the enclosure ; another space is then en- 
closed and fed off, and so on in succession till all are consumed. 
This is found to be a very convenient practice in England, as 
it saves labor, both in feeding and distributing manure, and 
might be adopted here with great advantage, if upon experi- 
ment, it shall be found, that the rutabaga will succeed well in 
our soil and climate, and is sufficiently hardy to stend our win- 
ters. 

A species of cabbage that is sufficiently hardy to stand the 
winter in England, is frequently fed off to sheep, upon the 
ground upon which it grew, in the same manner as turnips; 
and it would be worthy of inquiry and experiment, whether 
cabbages suitable to our climate and soil could not be raised to 
advantage, for feeding sheep, during the short period wc can- 
not furnish them with grass, or while the grass is covered with 
snow. 

It is probable the sugar beet will be found to be a more val- 
uable crop in our dry soil than any description of turnips.* 

The latter arc so subject to be destroyed by insects, when 
they first come up; and so liable to be injured by drouth, as to 
render them too uncertain to be relied upon as a crop for winter 
food for stock. The beet crop is much the less subject to inju- 
ry from insects, and will probably be found more productive.! 



*The rutabaga will not succeed if sowed the usual time we sow 
the common turnip for table use, (about the first of August,) because 
it will riot have sufficient time to come to maturity. I hare, this year. 
made an experiment to ascertain whether spring sowing or drilling, 
will not succeed better^ In some rich meadow ground, prepared for 
beets, I planted, in drills, eight rows of rutabaga turnip?, 150 feet 
long. The rows were two feet wide, and the seed dropped just one 
foot apart. They were planted on the 17th of April, and came up 
very well, but more than nine tenths of them were destroyed by some 
kind of insect. I replanted the turnips the same distance apart, on 
the 17th of June, when the ground was in fine order. They again 
came up very well, but were a second time destroyed in about the 
same proportion, as in the first instance. The whole were cultivated 
with the hoe. The season was favorable for both plantings, except 
that it was too wet to cultivate them well, but the first succeeded 
much the best. These averaged in weight, when topped, (in Octo- 
ber,) about three and a half pounds. Those planted in June averaged 
only about one pound. Early planting would, therefore, seem to be 
best. 

tAt the same time that I planted eight rows of rutabaga turnip?!* 



52 






I have in a former part of this essay, suggested a plan of a 
sheep fold. I consider this so important in sheep husbandry, 
as to justify a more minute description of it. The following 
plan of a shed and sheep fold is recommended, as regards econ- 
omy, saving of manure, and shelter and proteciioji of the 
sheep. Let a shed be erected upon locust posts set firmlv in 
the ground, fronting to the south or south-east, as nearly as 
convenient. The posts on the north side should rise about four 
feet above the ground, and he hewed on the inside so as to ad- 
mit of being planked up. Those in the front range should be 
twelve feet above ground. The whole should be tenanted so 
as to admit of plates the whole length of the shed. The two 
ranges of posts should be eighteen feet apart, and the length 
in proportion to the number of sheep it is intended to shelter. 
The plates upon the two ranges of posts should be connected 
by rafters, well fastened with wrought iron spikes, or stout sea- 
soned locust pins, and the whole covered as may be deemed 
most economical. At one end of the shed there should be a 
frame or log building, eighteen feet square, and about twelve 
feet to the roof, for holding hay. The gable end of this build- 
ing should stand towards the shed, and should have a door or 
space cut out at each end; one for throwing hay to the sheep,, 
should open under the roof of the shed, the other for introdu- 
cing hay from the meadow or stack, as occasion may require. 
At the opposite end of the shed there should be a house for con- 
taining turnips or beets, of sufficient width so as to cover or 



(17th April,) as mentioned in the preceding note, I planted fifty-eight 
rows of sugar beets, the same length and distance apart. The ground 
and cultivation was the same as to both species of roots. The first 
planting of beets, (owing to their being folloAved by much cold rain 
or the seed not being good,) came up very badly, not more than one in 
fiity. I replanted forty rows on the 16th of May. And of the bal- 
ance, byway of experiment, I planted a part on the first and a parton 
the eleventh of June. The season was favorable; (except that there 
was too much rain to cultivate ihe beets as they should have been,) 
and all came up well. Those planted on the 17th of April were the 
largest, and a row of these, replanted on the 17th of May, taking both 
plantings together, averaged three and a hah" pounds each. If none 
of the beets had been missing, there would have been at the rate of 
21,780, (one for each two square feet,) per acre, making 76,230 pounds. 
Supposing one fourth to be missing, the product per acre would have 
been at the rate of 62,174 pounds. If the beets had been planted wi- 
der in the rows, and cultivated with the plough, I am of opinion the 
product would have been greater. The beets planted on the first and 
eleventh of June, were not near so large as the others. Early plant- 
ing would seem, therefore, to be best. 



53 

enclose the end of the shed. This house should be construct- 
ed of a double pen of logs, with a space of eighteen inches be- 
tween, and (with a view to economy.) carried up and covered 
in the usual manner of log cabins. The inside pen should be 
raised about seven feet, and should have some logs laid across 
to support some rails or rough plank. The space between the 
two ranges of logs should be well filled in with materials best 
calculated to prevent the roots from freezing. Charcoal will 
answer best, (if that be used, the space between the two ran- 
ges of logs might be reduced,) or bark from a tan yard, which 
has been used for tanning. If neither of these can be obtain- 
ed conveniently, the interval might be filled with straw, which 
should be packed in very closely. Straw should also be stow- 
ed away, as closely as possible in the roof, so as to form a thick 
covering between the roof and the room in which the turnips 
or beets r.re to be preserved for winter use. This will be ne- 
cessary to protect them from the extreme cold from above. 
There should be but one doer-way, and that of convenient size 
for introducing the root crops; which, for convenience of feed- 
ing, should open under the shed. This door-way should have 
an internal and external door, the former a double one, open- 
ing against the two sides of the passage and the other opening 
externally. These doors should be mnde to fit very closely, 
and the space between should be lined on the sides with 
tongued and groved plank. As a greater security against the 
rcots freezing near the door-way , the space between the two 
doors should be kept well filled with straw, during very cold 
weather. But in our ordinary winter weather this precaution 
would not be necessary. And hence the trouble of replacing 
the straw, after each time of entering the root house, would 
only be necessary when the weather is very cold. In ordina- 
ry weather the only precaution that would be necessary, would 
be to close the outside door before opening the one within. 

It is essentially necessary to the preservation of roots, that 
they should have some air,* and that the effluvia or evaporation, 
arising from them should have an opportunity of passing off. 
To accomplish this object, one or more flues should pass from 
the root house, through the roof, these may be made by nailing 
four plank together, about a foot in width, so as to form a tube 
or chimney about a foot in the clear. The lower end should 






54 

terminate within the root department, and upper end pass 
through the comb of the roof. By permitting two of the 
planks of this chimney to rise eight or ten inches above the 
others, the top may be covered, so as to prevent the rain from 
descending the chimney. In very cold weather this flue should 
be closed, which may be done by a sliding door at the lower 
end, within the root house. In moderate weather the slider 
may be drawn out, and even in very cold weather the slider 
may be withdrawn for a few minutes, while engaged in taking 
roots from the house to feed. This will afford an opportunity 
for the effluvia to escape. It is injurious to keep roots too 
warm. To guard against this, the two doors of the entrance 
way should be kept open, or partly open, so long as the weath- 
er is not cold enough to endanger the freezing of the roots, 
nor will there be any necessity for straw between the two 
doors, until the weather shows indications of becoming very 
cold. 

If it is desired to keep a great quantity of roots, the house 
may be enlarged by extending its length, as occasion may re- 
quire; but in that case the number of flues ought to be propor- 
t ion ably increased.* 

*In answer to a letter of inquiry as to the manner of preserving the 
root crop, during winter, in England, the Hon. Daniel Webster, who, 
in his late visit, obtained much useful agricultural information, says, 
"In the greater part of England the turnip is eaten where it grows, 
by sheep turned on to the land. In the north of England and Scot- 
land, the turnips are often hauled or drawn, and covered with straw, 
in heaps, and fed to stock. They must not be kept too warm." In 
another part of his letter he remarks, "thty must be covered up slight- 
ly in heaps, out of doors. Cellars in barns are too warm. Some, in- 
stead of putting them in heaps, lay them down separately, (tops on, 
rootscutoff,) and cover them in that situation." In the plan recom- 
mended above, I have endeavored to avoid the inconvenience of sa- 
ving the root crop by covering them with earth or straw, at a distance 
from the feeding place; and to preserve them during winter, where 
they will be easily and conveniently accessible. But care must be ta- 
ken while securing them from frost, to give them air, and not keep 
them too warm. We must recollect that the climate of England is ve- 
ry different from ours. Mr, Webster observes, "there is little frost in 
England, though much wet." Hence a different mode of preserving 
the root may be necessary, and experience must settle the question 
as to what is the best mode. I have no doubt, that a house construc- 
ted as above directed, will be warm enough to preserve the roots from 
freezing. And by keeping the doors and flues open, except in freezing 
weather, and then closing them, and partly or entirely (according to 
the degree of cold) closing the flues, I am of opinion the danger from 
the want of air, and from too much warmth, may be guarded against. 
I would suggest, as another precaution, that the inner folding doors 
may each have an aperture of convenient size, with a sliding plaak, 






55 

As the shed will be supported by a house at each end, it 
will require no braces. It should be planked up close in the 
rear, and on the inside of the posts, to prevent the manure 
bursting them off. The front should be planked from the plate 
on the outside of the posts, to within five or six feet of the 
ground to prevent snow from so readily blowing under. In 
front of the shed there should be an enclosure sufficient to pre- 
vent dogs from entering the fold, and of a size suitable to the 
number of sheep to be protected. There should be a gatewav 
leading to the meadow or other ranging ground, for the con- 
venient admission, and turning out of the sheep, when about 
to fill the racks and to place food in the troughs. The ground 
should be so situated as to carry off the drainage from the back 
part of the shed, and, if necessary, the floor should be some- 
what raised with dirt, so as to keep it dry. At the end next 
the hay house, there should be two ranges of racks for hay. 
with a space of eight feet between them, and the inner one so 
far from the enclosed part of the house as to allow the sheep 
convenient room for feeding, and passing in the rear of those 
standing at the rack.-, say about four feet. My racks are thus 
constructed. I have timbers hewed out about forty feet in 
length, three inches thick, and twelve or fourteen inches wide. 
These arc bored, in a straight line, near each edge, entirely 
through, with an inch and a half auger, the holes being from 
five to five and a half inches from centre to centre, for the pur- 
pose of inserting rounds, shaved out for the purpose. The 
holes have such an inclination as will make the rounds stand 
out at the top, so as to be about two and a half feet wide in 
the clear, while at the bottom they will be about eight inches 
apart. The rounds may be inserted when perfecly green, but 
care should be taken to have them so tapering at the end as that 
they may be driven a little deeper as they become loose by 
seasoning. They will need nothing more to keep them firmly 
in place, but occasionally to drive them further in the holes as 
they become loose by seasoning. The upper end should be 
left square, and of full size. The rounds should be three feet 

by means of which they may be opened and shut at pleasure. These 
apertures and the outer door might be left open when the weather is 
moderately freezing, but not so severe as to endanger the roots. In a 
word, the root crop cannot be allowed too much air, or kept too cool, 
so that they do not freeze. 



56 

in length, and all should be tapered as nearly alike as possible, 
so that they may be driven equal distances in the bottom piece 
of the rack, and thus leave the tops to range even, for the 
more convenient introduction of hay and fodder, Two or 
three rounds should be inserted in each end of the rack, in such 
a position as will prevent the sheep from jumping in. As ma- 
ny of these racks should be arranged along in a line (leaving 
a few feet between them for the sheep to pass,) as may be ne- 
cessary. The two sides and ends of each of these racks will 
conveniently accommodate a hundred sheep. If well filled in 
the morning and left accessable to the sheep during the day, 
double that number miy be fed from each rack. But to pre- 
vent sheep from getting seed in their wool, they should al- 
ways be turned out of the yard and the gate closed before the 
hay is thrown from the mow to fill the racks. Once filling 
will generally answer for twenty -four hours, and even longer, 
where the sheep can get a bite of grass or are fed with ether 
green food. Each of these racks should be set upon four sub- 
stantial legs, large at the bottom, to prevent them from sink- 
ing in the ground, and set well apart to secure them from be- 
ing overturned. If necessary, a fifth leg should be placed in 
the centre to prevent the bottom piece from swagging. The 
racks should be raised about two feet from the ground. 

The troughs may be placed at the end of the hay racks, in 
a line, so as to be convenient to the root house, or if there be 
a scarcity of room under cover, they may be placed in the 
folding pen, in front of the shed. The troughs may be of any 
convenient length, about a foot wide in the clear, and four 
inches deep. To prevent the sheep from getting in the troughs, 
and thus dirtying the food and keeping others from getting 
their share, each one should have a broad plank placed over it, 
at the height of twelve or fifteen inches, whic h will admit of 
the food being put in and the feeding of the sheep without re- 
moving the plank. This may be fixed as follows: let there be 
an upright pin inserted in each end of the trough, in a two 
inch auger hole, with a round tenant at the top of the size of 
an inch auger; then by boring a hole, with an inch auger, in 
each end of the plank, at the proper points, it may be let down 
on the tenants, and kept in place by a long nail, inserted in a 
gimblethole through the tenant, above the plank. Being thus 



57 

arranged, the plank may be taken offaa occasion may require, 
for cleaning the trough or any other purpose. If necessarv 
to prevent the plank from swagging down in the middle, it 
may be supported by a pin or forked stick, the two legs of 
which may be nailed to the sides of the trough, and the upper 
end supporting the plank, which is to serve as a cover. With 
care and attention in keeping up blue grass pastures, for win- 
ter feeding, sheep will not require to be fed more than one 
or two months in the year. But to supply a largo flock with 
winter pasture would, perhaps, require so much ground as to 
make it less economical than to feed sheep somewhat longer 
with roots, assisted with hay and corn fodder. Persons en- 
gaged in sheep husbandry, will probably find it to their ad- 
vantage to make provision for feeding their Hocks, at least two 
months in the year. The method of keeping sheep during 
the ten months they are kept on grass, is extremely simple; 
nothing is necessary but to furnish them with suitable pastur- 
age, a plentiful supply of salt, and an extensive range; where 
there are no burs, or frequently shifting them, if confined in 
small enclosures. They will do well without water, though 
they would do better if they shall have access to it at will. Bu1 
during the two months they are to be fed, much care should 
be taken to prevent them from falling off. If they are kept 
upon hay and fodder alone, (the latter is best where they have 
nothing but dry food,) they will fell off very much in flesh. 
The cause of this is clearly manifested by some experiments 
made by the celebrated naturalist, D'Aubcnton, whose name 
i have mentioned in connection with the introduction of meri- 
no sheep into France. He ascertained, by a course of care- 
ful experiments, that medium sized sheep will, upon an aver- 
age, consume eight pounds of grass per day or two pounds of 
hay. He also ascertained, that eight pounds of grass, when 
completely cured, will make two pounds of hay. He next 
made some experiments to determine how much water each 
sheep will drink in a day, when fed on hay alone, and found 
the quantity to be three pounds. From these facts it appears 
that when fed on grass, a sheep of medium size, will consume 
eight pounds, (including the evaporable and solid parts,) and 
when fed on hay, will consume only five pounds including wa- 
ter. With such a difference in the diet of- sheep, when fed 

F 



J 

I 



58 

on green and dry food, there must be a great falling off in flesh 
This experiment shows the importance of allowing sheep free 
access to water, when fed on dry food, and of supplying them 
with a due proportion of roots or some other succulent food, 
after their pasture shall have failed. With the advan- 
tage of an establishment such as I have described, this 
could easily be done, at but little expense; whilst it woul 
considerably increase the quantity of wool and manure, an 
keep the sheep in a thriving condition during the period they 
cannot be supplied with grass. This plan of feeding would al 
so enable those engaged in sheephusbandry to keep their 
sheep off their pastures somewhat later in the sprincr, which 
would allow the grass to get a good set before the sheep are 
turned on. 

Our climate is well adapted to the rearing of sheep; they 
are subject, if well kept, to scarcely any disease, and the pe- 
riod during which they require feeding is very short. There 
is nothing, therefore, to prevent Kentucky from engaging in 
sheep husbandry to great advantage. She possesses, moreo- 
ver, in the hilly region of the country, an immense quantity 
of land that is finely adapted to the rearing of sheep, and is 
scarcely fit for any other purpose. These regions may, with 
great advantage, be converted into sheep walks, where an im- 
mense number of sheep may be grazed, during the spring, 
summer and fall months, which will enable those engaged in 
sheep husbandry, to keep up their home pastures as a reserve 
for winter grazing. We have, therefore, the stronge st induce- 
ments to engage extensively in this business, which cannot 
fail in greatly promoting the prosperity of our state, and the 
wealth and happiness of our citizens. 

Having occupied so much space in treating of the agricul- 
ture of England, I can give but little room to that of other 
countries of Europe, Next to England, France may be regar- 
ded as most worthy of attention, in an agricultural point of 
view. Her soil is said to be better adapted to agricultural 
purposes than any country in Europe.* It produces most of 
the useful plants, and is congenial to the rearing of all the most 
useful domestic animals. In relation to internal and foreign 
commerce, it is admirably situated, being in a great measure 
^Farmers' Guide, 23, 



59 

surrounded by the North Sea, British channel, Bay of Biscay 
and Mediterranean, and intersected in all directions by navi- 
gable rivers and canals. Her climate is mild and very favora- 
ble to agricultural pursuit?. With these advantages and in- 
ducements, we may readily suppose the example of England 
would not be lost to this country; and accordingly she has paid 
much attention to the science of agriculture. "As early as 
1761, there were thirteen agricultural societies, besides nine- 
teen subordinate co-operating ones." Since that period, and 
especially during the time Bonaparte swayed the destinies of 
France, "many new 01133, together with some professorships, 
were established.'" France has adopted the system of rotation 
in crops, and, as in England, the old system of summer fallows 
has generally given way to the more useful and more profita- 
ble practice of introducing some preparatory green crop as the 
forerunner of grain crops. But it is said, after a succession 
of crops^the lands arc sometimes left "to rest a year or two, 
during which they produce nothing but grass and weeds, and 
they are afterwards broken up with a naked fallow.'"* If this 
be correct, it is certainly a bad system of husbandry. It would 
be much better to sow down the field intended to be rested, in 
red clover, and when sufficiently renovated, ploughed, late in 
the fall, preparatory to a suitable green crop the ensuing sum- 
mer, to be succeeded by wheat. 

It is said, in the China system of agriculture, great pains are 
taken not to suffer weeds to go to seed. This is a practice 
worthy to be followed every where. Its importance cannot be 
too highly estimated. It is a well settled principle that all 
plants exhaust a great deal more at the period of ripening 
their seed than at any previous period of their growth. This 
is owing, in part, to vegetables requiring much more suste- 
nance, at the time of maturing their seed, than at any previ- 
ous stage; and in part to the fact of "their deriving less foe d 
from the atmosphere, at this period, in consequence of their 
leaves having lost, in a considerable degree, their power of ab- 
sorption. Hence the importance ot not suffering weeds to ri- 
pen their seed. Besides, by doing so, a foundation is laid foi 
a crop the succeeding year, which will render the tillage more 



♦Farmers' Guide, 2?. 



60 

tedious and expensive. Weeds, moreover, consume a portion 
of the aliment, which ought to go exclusively to the sustenance 
of the growing crop. 

Prance has paid much attention to sheep husbandry, and 
her famous flocks of Jlambouillet are said to surpass the best of 
those in Spain, whence she originally derived them. They 
were selected with great care and judgment, and the govern- 
ment has held out the strongest inducements to their improve- 
ment, by the application of the utmost skill and science* The 
country is now deriving the full benefit of this wise policy, by 
the spread of this useful race of animals over all France, which 
has laid the foundation of her unsurpassed manufacture of 
fine oloths, 

France is also distinguished for the culture of the vine, and 
for her extensive product of wines and brandies. The rear- 
ing of the siik worm has also been extensively introduced ani 
found to be a very productive and profitable agricultural pur- 
suit. The culture of the mulberry took its rise, at the com- 
mencement of the seventeenth century, and the honor of in- 
troducing the silk culture is due to the Great Henry the fourth. 
It has already extended itself over the greater part of the king- 
dom. The raw silk produced in France, has been estimated 
at four millions of dollars.* This is converted into a variety 
of beautiful fabricks, which adds greatly to its value, and gives 
employment to a large number of her citizens. 

Nothing can prove more strongly the attention France has 
paid to husbandry, than the fact, that, notwithstanding she is 
so largely engaged in the cultivation of the vine and the mul- 
berry, in the production of the raw material for her unsurpass- 
ed cloth manufactories, and in rearing the beet for consump- 
tion, and to supply her sugar manufactories, yet she not only 
produces bread stuffs in sufficient abundance for her numerous 
population, but is an exporter of that article to a considerable 
extent. 

In Holland, agriculture is confined chiefly to pasturage, the 
management of the dairy and gardening. Madder and tobac- 
co are raised to some extent, as are also the various plants and 
roots suitable for feeding cattle. Holland is also celebrated 

^Farmers' Guide 24. 



61 

for her excellent cheese. Her implements of husbandry arc 
said to be better than those of any other part of Europe.* 

The German system of Agriculture is said to resemble that 
of England.! But great improvement has resulted from the 
recent establishment of schools of agriculture, particular! v 
that of Mogclin, where the principles of agriculture are taught 
in a practical and scientific manner. It cannot be doubted, 
that this mode of teaching, and practically illustrating the 
principles of agriculture, tends greatly to promote its ad- 
vancement towards perfection. 

Flanders has also availed herself of the advantages result- 
ing from schools of agriculture, and has rmde rapid improve- 
ments in the science. By adopting the improved methods of 
husbandry, she has been enabled greatly to increase her agri- 
cultural products, not only without diminishing the fertility of 
her soil, but has act ia!ly groatly im^r^ved It. 

Judge Buel, in an address to the agricultural society of New 
Jersey, states that the climate, soil and general make of Flan- 
ders "bears a close resemblance to the southern part of New 
Jersey." That "the surface of the country is flat, and was 
naturally wet and cold; the soil, generally, sandy and poor, 
except upon the streams coming from the interior, and at their 
embouchere into the ocean. And yet with all these disadvan- 
tages, there is probably no country in Europe richer in the 
products of the soil, owing, principally, to her excellent sys- 
tem of husbandry; and no where, apparently, is the condition 
of the agricultural population better, and the country more 
exempt from pauperism and crime than in Flanders.! 

The following extract from the address alluded to above, 
giving an account of the characteristics of Flemish husband- 
ry, conveys in so clear and intelligible a manner, the true 
principles of a good system of agriculture, and is so applica- 
ble in the general, to our own country, that I shall be pardon- 
ed for not only giving it entire, but recommending it to the se- 
rious consideration of every farmer in Kentucky, and the 
whole union. "The characteristics which distinguish Flemish 
husbandry and which have rendered it so uncommonly pro- 
ductive and profitable, are a thorough draining of the land, a 

♦Farmers' Guide, 24. tlbid, 25. 
^Franklin Farmer, 1840, p. 182. 

F* 



62 

perfect pulverization of the soil by frequent and deep plough- 
ings, or by trenching; the subjecting the lands to alternate 
husbandry, the extensive culture of clover, of root crops, and 
of tares for soiling and winter feeding their cattle, the careful 
extirpation of all weeds, a remarkable attention to the saving 
and judicious application of manures, particularly of liquid ma- 
nures, a constant occupation of the ground with crops or her- 
bage, and a. judicious rotation, differing in almost every dis- 
trict, on account of the difference in soil, and adapted and 
settled, after long experience, to such as is best suited to the 
local market, as will best repay the farmer's cost and toil by 
an abundant return — best cultivate the soil for a succeeding 
crop — best enrich it for the purpose of increasing fertility, and 
most effectually prevent, by judicious alternation, that natural 
disgust, which, even good soils manifest to reiterated crops of 
the same description; the small size of farms and the keeping 
them in constant crop; no man attempting to manage more 
than he can manage well; the cutting of the forage and grind- 
ing the grain for the farm stock, thereby lessening greatly this 
heavy item of expenditure; and, finally, the farmers giving 
their undivided attention to their farms, and their industrious 
frugal habits of living — no lumbering; no fishing; no specula- 
tion; no hankering after office." The great value of the 
Flemish system of agriculture is evinced by the uncommon 
product of a sell which was "naturally wet and cold," and gen- 
erally "sandy and poor," before the improved methods were a- 
dopted. Those products ere stated by Mr. Buel to be "in 
wheat 32 bushels, rye 32^ do., oats 52 do., potatoes 350 do. 
per acre," a groat average truly, and highly creditable to 
Flemish skill and industr}*". Having given a sketch of the 
husbandry of some cf the oilier countries in Europe, in which 
most attention has been paid to this important subject, it is time 
I should turn my attention to that of Kentucky, as well in its 
infancy as "in its more advanced state, and in doing so I shall 
take occasion to compare it with that of foreign countries. 

The first settlement of Kentucky may be regarded as the 
hunter state. Though cattle could easily have been raised by 
grazing them up on the natural pastures in the summer, and 
upon the extensive canebrakes in the winter, if the inhabitants 
had been living in a state of peace, yet such was not their con- 



63 

dition. Surrounded by a savage foe, who was ever on the 
watch to seize upon the property or take the lives of the set- 
tlers, if they had raised cattle to any extent, it would onlv 
have been for the use of the enemy, and the better to enable 
him to prolong his predatory incursions, and thereby do them 
the greater mischief. Thus situated they could rear no more 
cattle than they could secure within their stockade forts, in 
time of danger. A few cows for milk and butter, and as ma- 
ny of the young as were necessary to keep up the stock, and 
to supply the emigrants, was as much as they could aim at, in 
the early period of our history. But game was plenty, and 
Uie same wfle which was necessary for their protection, was 
amply sufficient to afford an abundant supply of bear, deer 
and buffalo meat. The whole system of husbandry, at the 
first settlement of the country, was to raise a little Indian 
corn for bread or hominy, around the fort, and within the pro- 
tection of the garrison. But when the population had so far 
increased as to enable the settlers to act on the offensive, as 
well as the defensive, they could embody and meet the Indians 
in their advance, or pursue them in their retreat, and frequent- 
ly inflict severe retaliation upon them. This had the. effect of 
making the enemy embody in larger parties, and to diminish 
the frequency of their predatory expeditions. As the settlers 
began to feel their strength, they enjoyed a greater sense of 
security, and consequently extended their efforts in raising 
supplies of agricultural products, for the use of their families 
and to supply the wants of the emigrants to the country. But 
a considerable period elapsed before any thing of the grain, 
kind was raised, except Indian corn. The want of mills to 
grind wheat was an obstacle to the cultivation of that crop. 
But the great fertility of the soil and the demand for corn, as an 
article of subsistence for the settler and his stock, as well as to 
supply the wants of the emigrant, held out a strong induce- 
ment for its cultivation. It was not until a commercial com- 
munication was opened with the Spaniards, at New Orleans, 
that wheat and tobacco began to be objects of importance. 
From this period the culture of those articles began to assume 
some importance. But there was, as yet, little or no system 
in the husbandry of the country. A part of the corn ground 
might be sowed broad cast, among the standing corn in the 



64 

fall, and reaped in July following, and the balance of the clea- 
red ground cultivated in corn the succeeding year, and that 
sowed in wheat the following autumn. The wheat stubbie 
the year after the harvesting of the wheat, might be ploughed 
for corn, and so on in succession. Whilst some new ground 
cleared for tobacco would serve for that crop. Others again 
cultivated corn only, in continued succession,- without any 
change. Such was the system (if system it could be called) 
of cropping that generally prevailed, until a late period of the 
history of our state. As fertile as our soil naturally is, it be- 
gan at length, to show the effects of a bad system of husband- 
ry. To remedy this deterioration of soil, something better de- 
serving the name of system began to prevail among the more 
judicious farmers of the country. Although no very regular 
system of rotation of crops was adopted, yet the practice of 
occasionally resting the land, by putting it down in clover be- 
gan to prevail. This practice was beneficial in proportion to 
the length of time the land was permitted to remain in clover, 
compared with the time it was occupied with grain crops. 
Some farmers rested it for longer, some for shorter periods, and 
some not at all. These, by one continued succession of grain 
crops, at length so exhausted the soil, as to be no longer capa- 
ble of producing a crop that would pay for its cultivation. It 
is wonderful that land should be capable, to some extent, of 
producing grain crops for such a number of years in succession. 
It shows the almost inexhaustible nature of our incomparable 
soil, and what might be expected from it if cultivated in a 
systematic and scientific manner. 

In some parts of the state, where grazing cattle has been ex- 
tensively practised, a system has prevailed of sowing. down in 
blue grass {Pod) lands that have been much exhausted by re- 
peated cultivation in corn and wheat crops, and suffering them 
to lie many years in pasture, and then again to cultivate them 
several years in corn, whilst other exhausted lands are put 
down in grass aud suffered to rest. On large farms, where 
many cattle are grazed, this is doubtless a very convenient 
and a very good mode of renovating land, provided the corn 
crop do not occur too frequently. 

While the land is in blue grass pasture, it not only receives 
the manure produced by the cattle grazed upon it, but also. 



65 

from those fattened with the corn and fodder, cut up for win- 
ter feeding. It is enriched, not only by having returned to it 
all that has been taken from it; but also by receiving all the 
manure resulting from the crop of corn, growing on other parts 
of the plantation. It is a well settled principle, that if every 
thing which is taken from the soil in the shape of a crop, is 
returned to it in the form of manure, it will progressively in- 
crease in fertility. This may appear strange to some. But 
when it is recollected that the growing crop receives its ali- 
m3nt, not from the land alone r but, in a considerable degree, 
from elementary principles, mingled with the atmosphere, the 
proposition will appear very reasonable. Hence it would seem 
to follow, that if two fields of fifty acres each, were cultivated 
in rotation, so as to have each. three years alternately in corn 
and blue grass, and the corn and fodder off of one field should 
all be fed on the other, there would be a gradual improvement 
of the soil in both fields. Such would, undoubtedly, be the fact 
if the feeding of the corn and fodder should be equally dis- 
tributed over the whole field; and if the ground should l 
well covered with grass, and the sod so compact as to prevent 
injury from washing rains, and summer heat, and treading of 
stock. The field in corn would gradually deteriorate, during 
the three years it would be occupied by this grain crop, and, 
during the three succeeding years, there would be a progres- 
sive renovation of the soil. So that it would not only recover 
all that had been lost, but there would be an actual improve- 
ment of its fertility. This principle is very encouraging to 
agriculturists, but it should never be forgotten, (hat it will on- 
ly hold good where the utmost care is taken to prevent injury 
to the soil by washing rains, or by too great an exposure to the 
evaporating effects of the sun's rays. If before the commence- 
ment of this alternation, the soil had been very much reduced 
by bad husbandry, the process of renovation b\ the foregoing 
rotation, would be too slow to be relied upon, and the crops of 
grass to those of corn, should be two to one. The rotation 
should then be four years in blue grass to two in corn. 

Although it is true, as a general principle, that where every 
thing is restored to the land, in the form of manure, which has 
been taken from it by growing crops, it will gradually improve 
in fertility, yet it must be recollected, that where the manure 



66 

is restored by feeding the crops on the ground, much more will 
be lost by eveporation than where the feeding is done in small 
feeding pens, and the manure hauled thence upon the land, 
and covered with the plough as fast as it is spread. It is obvi- 
ous this is the most economical way of applying manure, so far 
as relates to the manure itself. But if the cost of hauling all 
the provender from a large plantation, to one or two feeding 
pens, and hauling the manure thence to the several fields, to 
which it properly belongs, the expense will be found to be 
more than will counterbalance the loss of manure, by suffering 
cattle to drop it on the ground where it is wanting. 

The plan of feeding upon blue grass pastures, which are 
afterwards to be converted into plough land, is therefore, upon 
the whole, the most economical, especially in our state, where 
the ssvingof labor is an objectof so much importance. 

Experience has shown that where lands have been consid- 
erably exhausted by constant cultivation in grain crops, they 
may be renovated by grassing them alone, without applying 
any manure. This is in strict accordance with the principles 
laid down above. In this case all is restored to the land which 
has been drawn from it, and hence it will gradually improve 
and become more fertile, so long as it is continued in grass. 
Bat the renovation cannot, of course, progress so rapidly as 
where it is assisted by the manure produced by the grain and 
fodder from the other parts of the plantation. 

Where it is intended to improve land by grassing alone, un- 
aided by manure, the product of other parts of the plantation, 
red clover is to be preferred to any other grass. Clover af- 
fords a much thicker covering to the ground during the sum- 
mer heats, than any other grass, and thus prevents it from in- 
jury by evaporation. Its numerous leaves enable it to extract 
a larger portion of its aliment from the atmosphere, and it 
leaves upon the ground a much heavier coat of roots, stems 
and leaves, after having been pastured than any other grasses. 
If we add to these advantages, that a heavy coat of clover 
may be ploughed in during the fall of the last year it is inten- 
ded to keep the land in grass, which will furnish a dressing of 
manure for the succeeding year, we shall be convinced of the 
great superiority of clover over other grasses in restoring ex- 
hausted lands. For these reasons clover forms a veryimpor- 






67 

tant crop, and can be introduced with great advantage into al- 
most every good system of rotation. 

In some parts of the state a practice prevails of clearing up 
and thinning out the woodland, and sowing it down in blue grass 
for pastures. 

This mode of husbandry is certainly very judicious, as it 
renders woodland, otherwise unproductive, almost as valuable 
as that which has been entirely cleared. But it is sometimes 
pushed to extremes, especially on plantations where the clear- 
ed land bears a small proportion to that in woods. The latter 
is all cleared up, the small growth and indifferent timber dead- 
ened or cut down, and the land sowed in blue grass. The far- 
mer, having now a plentiful supply of pasture, commences the 
grazing of cattle, partly raising, but chiefly purchasing steers 
and spayed heifers of a proper age to graze one summer 
and fall, and then to fatten during the ensuing winter. To 
feed these the whole of the cleared land is planted in corn, 
which is fed to the cattle while running in the woodland pas- 
tures. Thus the manure produced by the corn and fodder, in- 
stead of being restored to the ground which ought to receive 
it, is scattered upon the woodland pastures, which do not need 
it. This is very injudicious and is well calculated to deterio- 
rate and exhaust the soil in cultivation, while the woodland, 
which is naturally sufficiently fertile, receives the manure re- 
sulting from the corn ground. It would be a great improve- 
ment of this system if the corn and fodder were fed in feeding 
pens, so situated as to be most convenient for hauling the cut 
up corn crop to them, and to transfer the manure, when suffi- 
ciently decomposed, to the fields on which the corn was raised. 
They would thus receive back what frad been taken from 
them. This would be a great advantage, but still a continued 
succession of corn, for a long time, will cause a deterioration 
of soil, and a change of crops will be necessary. To guard a- 
gainst this evil the corn ground should occasionally be sown in 
wheat, in the fall, after a very careful cultivation of corn crops, 
so as to keeep the field clear of weeds and grass; and in the 
month of February following, should be thickly sown with 
red clover. It is of great advantage that the ground should 
be well covered, and hence it is true economy to sow trie clover 
very thick. A gallon of seed per acre, or at least a bushel to 



69 

ten acres, Is as small a quantity as should be sown. The ground 
should be rested in clover two or three years, or even longer 
if necessary to completely renovate the soil. Ii is very im- 
portant, when putting in the wheat crop, preparatory to sowing 
down the land in clover, to leave it as level as practicable, 
which will not only prevent a loss of soil by washing rains ? 
but will leave it in a condition to be more completely covered 
with a coat of grass, and less subject to injury by the treading 
of stock, while in pasture. If the wheat is ploughed in while 
the ground is in corn, a small harrow should be run across the 
corn ridges, in the opposite direction, so as to fill up the 
furrows and level the ground. If a cultivator be used in put- 
ting in the wheat, the ground may be laid sufficiently level with- 
out harrowing. When the corn is cut and shocked before the 
wheat is sown, the ground, after being ploughed, should be 
somewhat levelled by running a harrow over it, if it is inten- 
ded to sow it down in red clover. With a view to increase the 
manure in the feeding pen, and to prevent loss from evapora- 
tion, as iar as practicable, it would be advisable to have the 
straw hauled to the feeding pen and fed from a rack, so con- 
structed as to furnish, at the same time, a shelter to the stock 
from the cold winds, and a convenience for feeding the straw. 
Much manure might also be saved by herding the cattle in the 
feeding pen every night during the pasturing season, when the 
stock are grazing on the woodland pastures. This could be 
done without much trouble, by giving them a little salt, in 
troughs, every evening, and closing the gate till morning. Be- 
ing accustomed to get a little salt every evening, they would 
readily ccme by calling, and would soon come of their own ac- 
cord to the feeding pfcn. With a view to prevent a loss of ma- 
nure, by evaporation,* during the process of decompesition, 
some writers recommend that the decomposing materials should 
be covered with earth. This would doubtless be proper, if the 
cost cf hauling the earth or mould, upon the compost and 
thence to the fields to be manured, did not cost more than the 
value of the manure saved. And such, it is believed, would be 
the case, where labor is as high as it now is, and will probably 
continue to be, if not reduced by an improper interference of 
the national government. It is believed, however, that if the 
farmers, who desire to sow down their woodland in blue grass. 



69 

would have the leaves and trash carefully raked in heaps and 
hauled to their feeding pens, early in the spring, and cover 
over thickly the manure and remains of the provender left by 
the stock, the saving of manure would greatly more than com- 
pensate the labor. A considerable advantage would also arise 
from the ground being left in the best posssible condition for 
receiving the blue grass seed. 

By resorting to these methods of saving and applying ma- 
nure to corn ground, it would be much benefitted, and would 
deteriorate less than it would otherwise do; and when it came 
to its turn to be rested in clover, would be in much better con- 
dition for that crop, and much more easily renovated. 

Farmers who are not extensively engaged in grazing, and 
who run more upon corn, wheat, hemp and tobacco, will find 
the clover crop the most convenient and cheapest method of 
renovatinc land which has been much exhausted.* But thev 
should, by no means, neglect the use of every proper means 
of saving manure, and applying it in the most judicious man- 
ner. Wheat, corn and tobacco are all exhausting crops, and 
will be greatly benefitted by a liberal application of manure. 
But hemp, though it requires a rich soil, exhausts but little, 
and may be reared, for a number of years in succession, upon 
the same ground, without any apparent deterioration, if it be 
cut instead of pulling, and watered on the same ground on 
which it grew. But my experience, which does not extend 
beyond eleven successive crops, will not authorize me to affirm 
that hemp can be successfully grown on the same ground for 
any length of time. If experience shall demonstrate that 
hemp is not an exception to the general rule, which requires a 
rotation of crops to keep the best of soils in good heart, this 
crop should be followed by wheat and two or three crops of 
clover, which would bring it again into fine condition for hemp. 
Corn, wheat, clover, clover, is a very useful rotation for a rich 
calcarious soil, that has not been much reduced by bad husbandry. 
This is a course of two grain and two green crops in four years, 
and would keep the rich Kentucky lands in good heart, and by 
proper economy in saving, and judiciously applying manure, 
the farmer may safely calculate upon a gradual and progress- 

*For the rotations suitable for corn, hemp and tobacco, see eseaye 
on those subj ects. 

G 



70 

ive improvement of his soil. But if the ground has been much 
exhausted by bad husbandly, or if it be a clay soil, with -only 
a thin covering of vegetable mould, the rotation should be on- 
ly two grain to four green crops. A clay soil should moreovei 
be aided by the application of plaster of Paris (sulphate of 
lime) which should be applied to the wheat crop at the time of 
sowing clover, in the month of February.* And in very thin 

*The importance of plaster, (sulphate of lime) as a manure upon 
clay soils, will appear from the following extracts from a letter ad- 
dressed to the author of this essay, by a very intelligent farmer of 
Bracken county, Kentucky. Bis farm is situated upon a lofty oak 
ridge, dividing the waters, which flow into the Ohio from those which 
flow into the North Fork of Licking. The natural growth is oak, 
with no intermixture of the timber peculiar to the rich calcarious 
soilsof Kentucky, which are distinguished by a considerable depth 
of vegetable mould, except a slight sprinkling of sugar trees at the 
heads of hollows or rapines, leading io wards the Ohio and North 
Fork. White oak is the predominant growth. The soil is entirelj- 
clay, with scarcely any appearance of vegetable mould, even in the 
best of the land, in its natural state. It is founded upon horizontal 
limestone rock, lying at the depth &f eight or ten feet from the surface. 
Having been long acquainted with this farm, and knowing that it had 
been greatly improved by its present owner, (having been much dete- 
riorated by its former occupant,) and that gypsum had been used as 
one of the means of restoring it to its present degree of fertility, I ad- 
dressed him a letter of inquiry, as to the use he had made of plaster in 
renovating his land. The following extracts are from his letter in re- 
ply : "I commenced the use of plaster as a manure, in the fall of 
1834, purchased one barrel containing four or four and a half bushels, 
of the blue kind, which I put on 16 or 18 bushels of wheat, at the 
time of seeding, allowing about one peck of plaster to a bushel of 
wheat, the wheat being first well Wet with water, and plaster sprink- 
led over and stirred with a stick; and if not sufficiently wet to make 
the plaster adhere, put still more water, and continued stirring until all 
the plaster stuck, and the grains separated from each other. The 
crop of wheat, from that fall's seeding, on the farms in this section of 
country, was, in the general, much affected with the scab or rot. My 
wheat, so far as the plaster extended, w r as scarcely affected in the 
least, except a small skirt next the woodland, which was not half as 
much so as that on which there had not been any plaster. The bal- 
ance of my crop was much injured. About the centre of the field on 
which I used the plaster, I left a space of about 40 feet across the 
field, on which I sowed wheat without being plastered. From the 
first appearance of the wheat, after getting above the surface of -the 
earth, the difference in appearance was considerable, and in favor of 
ihat which was plastered. At the time of harvest, the plastered 
wheat on each side, was about s-ix inches taller, heads longer, free 
from scab, and the straw of a much more beautiful color. I think the 
effect of the t barrel of plaster, as manure, Avas worth, to me, at least 
one hundred dollars." 

"I have since used other kinds of piaster, to wit: white and gray, 
but to say which is the most advantageous for farming purposes, I am 
not satisfied, as I have not failed in receiving a considerable benefit 
from each. From the great scarcity of the article and the advance 
in price, I have not used it io half the extent I am assured it merits. 
I think that which has the finest and softest texture is the best for far- 



11 

clay soils it may be necessary to increase the number of clc 
ver crops in proportion to those of grain, especially where no 
manure is applied. The rotation might then be one crop of 
corn or wheat to three of clover. In very rich land the fol- 
lowing rotation is sometimes practised, corn, wheat, clover, 
and so on, in succession. This is a practice that cannot be 
recommended, as it would be too exhausting, except where 
there is a very large application of manure or upon a very rich 
soil which has not been exhausted. Where but one corn crop 
and then wheat succeeds clover, it will be unnecessary to sow 
the wheat in clover, as the seed in the ground will generally 
be sufficient to set the ground anew in clover 

I have found the following rotation to be a Very good one, as 
regards profit, and it will keep a rich calcarious soil, which has 
not boen much exhausted by bad husbandry, in good heart, and 
gradually improve its condition; corn, corn, rye, rye, the two 
last crops to be fed on the ground. This is a course of four 

mingpurposes, without being particular a* to color; when free from 
an improper mixture." "On tho 20th of June last, (by way of exper- 
iment) I gav< portion of corn an upper dressing — about a tea 
spoon full to the lull — (The reason I did not use it over the greater part 
of my corn, was, that the season had so far advanci fearful it 
would be entirely lost to the benefit of the present crop of corn. At 
the time of ga it showed it-; valuable effects as a manure. 1 
am satisfied I gathered, from that which had that small, late, upper 
dressing, from one fourth to one third more than 1 did from that which 
had not, on equal soil.' 1 On my land, set in clover or clover and tim- 
othy, I spread, by broad cast, one peck per acre, from which, at a rea- 
sonable calculation, I cut double, and of a favorable season, three fold. 
I generally leave a strip without pli r experiment. 

'■My short experience with plaster induces me to think, when it is 
applied by broad cast, either on grass or grain, it should be done early 
in the spring, station commences, as it requires much mois- 

ture to dissolve it." "From the scarcity of plaster, 1 have not, in 
any instance, used more than one peck per acre, either by broadcast 
or on grain. If it were to be had at a moderate price, I should like 
to try from half to a bushel per acre.* 1 

"Plaster, on such clay as mine, will continue its effects two years 
if applied to grass." 

"The mode 1 pursue, in the cultivation of my land, differs conside- 
rably from that of many more eminent farmer? than I claim to be. Af- 
ter my land remains in clover, or clover and timothy two or three years, 
as circumstances require, I cultivate a crop of corn, then seed in 
wheat and grass seed the spring following. By properly cultivating 
the land while in corn, my usual crops of wheat ai om 15 to 

25 bushels per acre. I have tried fallow, but cannot get more than 
from my corn land. My crops of corn, of good seasons, -yield about 
50 bushels per acre." After giving the aBore extracts, which I con- 
sider of great value, it is proper to add, that 1 have been informed 
this same farm, before its renovation, yielded less than 10 bushels of. 
wheat and 20 of corn per acre. 



12 

grain crops in four years ; but rye is not very exhausting whea 
taken from the land, and when the whole product is left 01 
the ground, together with all the manure which is dropped by 
the stock grazed on it for three seasons, I have found that it 
not only does not exhaust, but more than restores what the twc 
corn crops have subtracted from the soil. The rye requires 
but once seeding. The expense of putting it in is only equiv- 
alent to the value of the rye which is sown, If the corn have 
been well cultivated and kept free from weeds, the rye may be 
sown among the standing corn, early in September, without 
even ploughing or harrowing, with a full assurance that the 
first good rain will bring it up. But it will be best to run a har- 
row or cultivator through the corn, after sowing the rye, if it 
has not been blown down so much as to forbid this being done. 

The rye may be pastured the fall and winter, after sowing,, 
and until the middle of April following. It should then be 
suffered to seed, and be fed off to mules, hogs, &c. There 
will be rye enough left, after feeding it off, for seeding the 
ground the succeeding fall, and it may again be pastured till 
the middle of the following April, when it should be suffered 
to grow up and ripen, and be fed off as before. For the third 
time it may be grazed till the season for ploughing. A sec- 
ond course of the rotation will now be commenced and proceed 
as before. But if the land has been much exhausted, or if the 
soil be clay, or clay with a thin covering of vegetable mouldy 
it would be proper to sow the rye in February of the second 
year, with clover; and that the rye crop should be succeeded 
by two or three crops of that great restorer of fertilit}'. And 
where it is desired to renovate a soil, naturally rich, which has 
been much reduced by bad husbundry, a similar course should 
be pursued. It is best, when it is intended to sow down a rye 
field in clover, to plough in the rye the previous fall and harrow 
the ground, or to put it in with a cultivator. This will leave 
a level surface for the reception of the clover seed, and free 
ihe ground from other grasses and noxious weeds. 

If the soil be suitable for plaster, the clover crop should be 
assisted by a good dressing of this valuable manure. 

In speaking of the rotation of crops in Kentucky, I have 
hitherto confined myself chiefly to the only green crops (clover 
and blue grass) which have been much in use, in our system. 



73 

of husbandry. But the time is coming when we shall see the 
necessity of introducing other green crops. Which of them 
will best suit our circumstances, climate and soil, must be de- 
termined by experience. I have endeavored, by the general 
principles I have laid down, and by presenting very fully, a 
course of experiment?, made by that distinguished writer and 
agriculturist, Arthur Young, to facilitate the enquiries of the 
judicious farmer, and to aid him in discovering what rotations 
will best suit our circumstances, soil and climate. According 
to the English practice, two crops of the same kind ought not 
to follow each other in any rotation. This is a good general 
rule, and ought rarely to be departed from. Experience shows 
that hemp is an exception to the rule. Corn may also be in- 
dulged a second time, where it is intended to clean and prepare 
ground for a crop of wheat, to be succeeded by severul crops of 
clover. Our circumstances, climate and soil may, perhaps, 
justify some other exceptions to the rule, but it ought not 
lightly to be departed from. 

It has been seen that the bean crop in England, is one of 
the best preparatory crops for wheat. This crop would, with- 
out doubt, succeed well in our soil and climate. The result of 
Mr. Young's experiments show that it is a crop of great value; 
and I can see no reason why it could not be introduced here 
with great advantage. 

The alternate crop of beans and wheat has been found not 
exhausting, and of great value, in England, in a soil naturally 
much inferior to ours. Such at least, would seem to be the 
fact, from the experiments of Arthur Young, heretofore given 
in this essay. But if upon further experiment it should be 
found otherwise, or if the soil has been already exhausted by 
bad husbandry, after two or three courses of beans and wheat, 
according to circumstances, two crops of clover should follow, 
when the rotation of beans and wheat might again commence, 
always remembering that when the soil is suitable, the first 
crop of clover should have the benefit of a coat of plaster. 

Instead of preparing all the ground, which is intended for 

wheat by a bean crop, some part of it might be appropriated 

to some other "green crop," such as turnips, carrots, beets,. 

&,c. by way of experiment, to ascertain which will suit best 

for the following crop of wheat. Experience will soon teach 

G* 






74 

the judicious farmer, which will be most suitable to our climate 
and soil, and the most vuluable for feeding stock. The com- 
mon turnip, which is usually sowed late in July or early in 
August, will not, it is believed, answer as a preparatory crop 
for wheat. It is a very uncertain crop, in consequence of the 
drouths to which we are subject in the fall months, and the 
ravaging effects of the fly. Besides the crop will not come to 
maturity in time for sowing wheat. The rutabaga will proba- 
bly answer best for stock. These may be sowed in April ; or 
early in May, and may be pulled in time for sowing wheat in 
September. These, as well as the common turnip, are sub- 
ject to the ravages of the fly, and experience alone must de- 
cide whether they can be cultivated to advantage, as a prepar- 
atory crop for wheat. It is best to plant them in drills, and 
they should be cultivated with the plough and hoe. They 
should be allowed a space of one foot in the drills, and the 
rows should be so far apart as to admit of ploughing between 
with a small shovel plough, say two and a half feet. 

Beets and carrots will probably be found the best root crop 
for stock. These, it is believed, are not subject to so many 
casualties as the turnip crop. Experiments, in a small way, 
will soon determine the relative merits o( these and other root 
crops, as a preparation for wheat, and for feeding of stock.* 

Potatoes are a very exhausting cropland so uncertain and 
unproductive in our climate, as to forbid their general introduc- 
tion as food for stock. 

In the cultivation of beets, carrots, rutabaga, &c..the fol- 
lowing method is recommended. The ground should be well 
pulverized by ploughing and harrowing. If done in time to 
afford the soil the benefit of the frosts of the preceding winter, 
it will be so much the better.. It should then be laid off in 
furrows two and a half feet from centre to centre, in such a di- 
rection as will best prevent the ground from washing, in time 
of heavy rains. This should be done with a large plough, 
throwing a wide furrow, and striking as deep in the ground 
as possible. A well constructed shovel or coulter plough 
should then be run along the bottom of each furrow, so as to 

*See page 75, in relation to beets. To make an experiment 
on carrots, I planted a few rows, in drills two feet and six inches, on 
the second day of May. The product was at the rate of 15,125 
pounds per acre. They were the long orange colored kind. 



75 

loosen the ground to a considerable depth. This should be 
done early in the spring in order that the ground may have 
the benefit of the spring frosts, which will aid very much in 
pulverizing the soil. In this state it should be left till the time 
of planting. A single horse plough of suitable construction, 
(one with a double mould board will suit best,) should now be 
run on each side of the several furrows, so as to form a ridge 
over their centres, This could be better done by first running 
a harrow over the ridges, lengthwise, so as to level them down, 
in some degree. When the ridges arc made, a heavy brush 
or some suitable machine should be dragged over them, length- 
wise, with a view of levelling down the tops slightly, so as to 
give them a proper width for depositing the seed. These 
should be drilled by a proper machine, along the centre of 
each ridge, turnips and beets at the distance of one foot and 
carrots six inches, and other roots according to the size they 
grow. 

There are 43,569 square feet in an acre. Allowing one 
turnip or beet for each two and a half square feet, the num- 
ber per acre would be 17,424. But as some may not grow or 
may be destroyed by some casualty, one fourth may be deduct- 
ed on this account, which will leave 13,008. If planted in 
good ground and well cultivated, beets and rutabaga turnips 
will probably average five pounds each, making 65,340 pounds 
per acre, equal nearly to thirty tons.* 

The saving of manure is so important in the renovation of 
soil, "where it has been deteriorated by improvident cultiva- 
tion," that I shall be excused for going somewhat more into 
detail as to the best means of saving it. I have already sugges- 
ted the propriety of having feeding pens for feeding all stock 
which is not housed. The following points should be carefully 
attended to, in selecting suitable places for feeding pens: 

1. The ground should be somewhat elevated, and so near a 
level as to prevent any drainage through the pen, and the sides 
inclined to the centre, which should be hollowed out by a 
scraper. 

*The result of an experiment (since the above was written,) shows 
a product of 3£ pounds for each of these roots. But these were plan- 
ted too close and from that cause and from excessive rains, could 
not be cultivated well. The crop was probably injured by too much 
rain. 



76 

2. It should be so situated as to save, as much as possible, 
the labor of hauling provender to, and manure from the pen to 
the fields in cultivation. 

3. It should, if practicable, adjoin the pasture grounds, so 
that the cattle may be called up, of nights, during the pasturing 
season, and salted in the pen, where they should be detained 
till morning. 

4. The pen (if it have none in it.) should be convenient to 
water, so that the stock may conveniently be let out to it du- 
ring the winter feeding. 

5.— It should be as small as will be consistent with the safety 
of the stock, that the manure may be as little subject to evap- 
oration as possible. 

0. It should have a strong rack, (made of rails) running near 
its centre, and in such a direction as will best protect the cat- 
tle from the bleak winds. This should be kept well filled 
with straw, or, if there be none, then with corn fodder, in or- 
der the better to protect the cattle. Fodder should also be 
scattered over the pen, so as to furnish abundance of room for 
the weaker stock to feed, without interruption from the stron- 
ger. 

7. If cut up corn is intended to be fed instead of fodder, 
there should be two pens adjoining each other, so that the cat- 
tle may, every day or two, be shifted, in order that the hogs 
may follow to pick up whatever grain the cattle may leave or 
drop. And a separate pen should be provided for feeding fod- 
der. In these pens, (except on the large grazing farms, where 
from the great number of cattle fed it shall be found to be more 
economical to haul and feed the corn upon fields intended for 
future cultivation,) all the feeding should be done, during the 
feeding season, and the cattle herded of nights, during the 
spring, summer and fall months, when running on pasture. 

If all the corn, on a moderate sized farm, should be cut up 
and the fodder, or corn and fodder be hauled to the pens, and 
there fed, it is obvious a large quantity of manure would be 
saved, and if the cattle, while running on woodland pastures, 
were to be herded of nights, in the same pens, the quantity 
would be considerably increased. The manure saved from the 
woodland pastures will be so much clear gain to the plough 
land 



77 

The manure of horses may be best saved by stabling them, 
except when grazing, during the summer, on woodland pas- 
tures, when it might be saved in part by calling them up to a 
feeding pen, and giving them a little corn or salt. Cattle fed 
on roots, should have shelters, where their manure may be sa- 
ved and hauled thence over the farm 

Manure loses much by evaporation, to prevent which, some 
writers recommend that it should be deposited in pits and cov- 
ered over with a rich mould, and there suffered to decompose 
before hauling it over the plantation. This would doubtless bo 
a considerable saving of manure; but few farmers find time 
to bestow the additional labor, which this process requires. 
Manure, saved in feeding pens, will be very much exposed to 
the action of the air and the sun's rays, during the 
summer months, if not protected therefrom. To do this it 
would be advisable to have it piled in heaps, so soon as the 
feeding season is over, or nearly so, which might be covered 
with leaves and other trash, raked up on ground intended to 
be sown in blue grass. This would be attended with the dou- 
ble advantage of preventing the loss of manure by evaporation, 
and increasing its quantity by the decomposition of the Icp 
&c., This would also leave the woodland in fine condition for 
receiving grass seed. 

The labor of saving and applying manure is very considera- 
ble, and as far as it can be avoided without too great a loss, it 
ought to be done. Thus when stock can be pastured on fields 
intended for future cultivation, the labor of saving and apply- 
ing manure, as herein recommended, may be avoided. So al- 
so on very large farms, which are applied chiefly to grazing 
purposes, it may be more convenient to haul the cut up corn 
to fields intended for fuiure cultivation, and thus suffer the cat- 
tle to distribute the manure, where it will be ready for future 
use. Much labor will, in this way, be saved, though it will be 
attended with some loss of manure in consequence of the of- 
fal, left by the feeding animals, as well as their manure being 
exposed to the sun and air, and thus losing much by evapora- 
tion, which, in feeding pens, might be saved. Yet, under par- 
ticular circumstances, it may be better to submit to this loss 
rather than incur the expense of saving and distributing ma- 
nure, by hauling the provender to feeding pens. The judicious 



78 

farmer, taking into consideration every circumstance, must 
decide for himself which course would be best.* 

Nothing can more clearly show the importance of saving 
and applying manure, than a comparison of the products of 
our naturally fertile lands with those of other countries, which, 
though originally of very inferior quality, have been rendered, 
by good husbandry, much more productive than ours. 

By good husbandry is meant, first, a judicious system of ro- 
tation of green and grain crops; and, secondly, a strict atten- 
tion to the saving and applying of manure, with a just view to 
the nature and wants of the soil. 

The countries, of whose systems of agriculture I have giv- 
en a sketch, are greatly in advance of us in these respects. 
And they have been more than doubly compensated for their 
labor and expense, by the gradual increase of the fertility of 
their land, as well as by the more productiveness of their soil. 
This will be evinced by a few illustrations. 

1 have before shown that, taking the whole of the thirty-six 
courses of experiments, made by Arthur Young, good rod bad, 
the average of wheat was 21^ bushels per acre; and that if 
the courses from 19 to 25, (evidently very bad rotations) had 
been left out, the average would have been about 23 bushels 
per acre, and that average would have been considerably in- 
creased, if only the best system of rotations had been adopted. 
Mr. Webster states the average crop in England to be 26 bush- 
els, and this concurs with Loudon, who states the general av- 
erage of all England to be twenty-six bushels of wheat per acre. 

Judge Buel, in an address to the agricultural society of New 
Jersey states, on the authority of Sir John Sinclair, "the aver- 
age product of Scotch agriculture in good soils, as follows r. 



*lu the foregoing essay I have spoken of manures losing a part of 
their valuable ingredients by evaporation. This term is not appropri- 
ate to convey the idea intended. By the decomposition of animal 
and vegetable substances, ammonia and other gases are formed, 
which can exist only in the gaseous state, unless" some other sub- 
stance is present with which they are capable of combining, and 
forming fixed salts. ■ If no such substance be present, they will escape 
in the lorm of gas, and be entirely lost. 

The late work of Liebig, on organic chemistry, has thrown much 
light on the subject of preserving manures from loss by the escape of 
carbonate of ammonia, carbonic and other gasses. The method of 
accomplishing this important object is explained in the essay, on the 
system of agriculture, best adapted to Kentucky." [This note is in- 
serted, by mistake on pages 26 and 27.] 



79 

wheat, 32 to 40 bushels ; barley, 42 to 50 do. ; Oats, 52 to 64 ; 
turnips 8 to 10 tons. He also states, upon the authority of 
"the Rev. Mr.Ratcliff, who was sent to Flanders for the purpose 
of studying its husbandry, the average product of the soil to 
be : wheat, 32 bushels ; rye, 32^ do. ; oats, 52 do. ; potatoes 350 
do. ; per acre.' 1 General Washington, in 1790, in a letter to 
Sir John Sinclair, computes the average crop of Pennsylvania, 
which he considered the best cultivated state, as follows: wheat. 
15 bushels; rye, 20; oats, 30; Indian corn, 25; potatoes, 75. 

Mr. Buelsays, that when he purchased his farm "it was con- 
sidered a barren sand," and that he "became the butt of ridi- 
cule to some of his acquaintances for attempting to bring it 
under profitable cultivation," but that "in twenty years it has 
assumed quite a different appearance. It is now worth $200 
per acre for farming purposes;! hat it nctts him more than the 
interest of $200 per acre," and that the "average acreable 
product, in corn, is 60 bushels; in grass, nearly or quite three 
tons, in potatoes, in favorable seasons, 300 bushels, and other 
crops in proportion."* 

Mr Strickland, an eminent British farmer, who resided some 
time in Maryland, and who travelled much in the United States, 
forty or fifty years ago, in a communication to the British 
board of agriculture, stated our avcrvge wheat crop at 
12 bushels per acre, except in the county of Duchess, l'n New 
York, where he allowed it to be sixteen bushels per acre."| 

The average wheat crop in Kentucky, for the last ten years, 
probably exceeds the estimate of Mr. Strickland for the United 
States, but certainly falls short of his estimate for Dutchess 
county, New York. The average corn crop, during the same 
period, no doubt exceeds the estimate of General Washington, 
for Pennsylvania, but taking the whole state together, does not 
exceed thirty-five bushels. Some estimate the average at 40 
bushels, but I think it too high, though it is not uncommon for 
our best managed farms, in good seasons, to produce more than 
twice that quantity. It is a most extraordinary fact that Mr. 
Buel should be able to obtain from a soil, "naturally a barren 
sand," an average of 86 bushels of corn per acre, whilst from 
our rich calcarious soil, having a deep vegetable mould, upon 

•See a copious extract from Mr. Buel's address, in the Franklin 
Farmer, 1st February, 1840. flbid. 



80 

a sub-soil of clay, we are able to obtain, on an average, only 
thirty-five or forty bushels. 

Our corn crops sometimes suffer severely from drouth, 
but this happens not very frequently j and, in general, may be 
guarded against, in a great measure, by early planting and 
good tillage. We must look then to other causes for the appar- 
ent inferiority of our soil to that of Mr. Buel, and to the soils 
of England, Scotland, Flanders, &c. Those causes are sim 
ply the practice of bad husbandry. 

"Nature," says Mr. Buel, "had been equally bountiful to 
both continents. But we had abused and wasted her bountie 
while they had preserved and improved them. Our decreas 
grew out of a bad system of farming, their increase resulted 
from a more rational and improved system. The prosperity 
arose from the science which guided labor, in the one case, 
and the want of it in the other — to that science which is still 
courting our acquaintance and which we must become familiar 
with and apply, if we would profit largely from those privileges 
which God has bestowed alike upon us all." 



3 

I 



CULTIVATION OF CORN. 

Indian corn is a grain so necessary in raising and fattening 
6tock, that it must ever be regarded as very important, in any 
system of agriculture, suitable for the western country. 
Though an exhausting crop, it may be raised, for a succession 
of years, upon the same ground. But although a rotation does 
not appear so essentially necessary in this, as in some other 
crops, yet the fact of a continued cultivation of this grain, 
even upon our richest land, for a succession of years, gradu- 
ally deteriorating the soil, and diminishing the annual product, 
should admonish the husbandman, that a different system ought 
to be pursued. It should be a settled principle, with everv 
farmer, so to cultivate his land, as never to deteriorate his 
soil. He should constantly aim at improvement, as the best 
and most certain means of preventing deterioration. The 
first consideration, therefore, with every farmer, should be to 
adopt such a system, in the cultivation of corn, as will not on- 
ly prevent his soil from being reduced, but will gradually in- 
crease its fertility, and the product of his crop. The means, 
by which this may be accomplished, depend very much upon 
the native qualities of the soil, and the degree of deterioration 
it has under gone. 

To treat this subject in a practical and useful manner, it is 
necessary that we should distinguish between the white oak 
lands, of the west, having a clay soil, with little or no vegeta- 
ble mould on its surface, and the rich calcarious soils, having 
a deep vegetable mould, with a sub-soil of clay, founded on 

limestone rock. The latter, in its native state, is extremely 

H 



82 

fertile, and very productive in corn. But most of the lands 
©f this description, in Kentucky, have been so long, and so 
unskilfully cultivated, as to have considerably reduced their 
fertility. Yet experience has shown that they may (when 
the soil has not been too much washed off,) be restored to their 
original fertility, by a proper system of cultivation. This 
renovation may be accomplished by a judicious system of 
grassing the land, and restoring to it, in the form of manure, 
as nearly as practicable, every thing which is taken from it by 
the growing of crops. Ground which has been much exhaus- 
ted, should, after a wheat crop, be set in clover, by sowing, 
about the middle of February or between that and the first of 
March, among the growing wheat, one tenth of a bushel of 
clover seed per acre. It should be suffered to remain three 
summers under pasture, exclusive of the one in which the 
wheat is harvested. In the third year the clover should be 
permitted to go unpastured from the first of July until about 
the time the clover ripens,* when it should be turned under, 
by a well constructed plough, so as to bury every part of it. 
The better to accomplish this, a harrow, with the teeth rever- 
sed, or a heavy brush should be drawn over the clover so as to 
lay it flat, in the direction the ploughs are to run. A harrow 
should follow the plough to fill all the interstices, in order the 
more completely to cover up the clover. During the winter, 
while the ground is frozen, a dressing of manure (as far as 
the farm will furnish it,) should be hauled over the ground, 
but left in heaps till the proper time for ploughing, when it 
should be spread and immediately ploughed in. The field, 
thus improved, might now grow two crops of corn in succes- 
sion, and then be again sowed in wheat and clover, and treat- 
ed as in the first instance. 

A second field, in the mean time, might undergo the same 
system of improvement, and so on in succession, till all the 
cultivated land shall have been renovated. If the soil is natu- 



*In a letter addressed to the Rev. H. Colman, agricultural commis- 
sioner of Massachusetts, by Professor Samuel L. Dana, and pub- 
lished in the 48th and 49th numbers of the Franklin Farmer, for the 
year 1840, it is shown, very satisfactorily, that ploughing in green 
rrops are not as beneficial to land, as ploughing them in after they be- 
come thoroughly dry. This is a recent and important discovery. 
The ploughing in of the second crop of clover should, therefore, be de- 
layed until it is not only ripe, but completely cured. 






83 

rally rich and has not been much reduced hy cultivation, in- 
stead of three crops of clover in succession, two might be 
adopted, when the rotation would be as follows, clover, clover* 
corn, corn, wheat. This rotation would require five fields. 
two of which would be annually in corn, two in clover, and one 
in wheat, so that in every five 3"ears each field would produce 
two crops of corn, two of clover, and one of wheat. 

But if the soil has been much reduced, a shift of six fields 
would be necessary, and the rotation as recommended above, 
to wit: three years in elover, two in corn, and one in wheat, 
which would leave three fields annually in clover, two in corn, 
and one in wheat. This rotation, with a judicious application 
of manure, would quickly renovate any of our naturally rich 
calcarious land, where the soil has not been washed off. When 
land is naturally rich, and has not been much reduced by bad 
husbandry, the following rotation will be found very conven- 
ient and profitable, particularly for small farms. Corn, wheat, 
clover, and soon in succession. This will require but three 
fields, and the farmer will every year have one field in corn, 
one in wheat, and one in clover, besides the advantage of pas- 
turing the clover after his wheat comes off. But the clov* t 
must be suffered to go unpastured after the first of July, and 
be ploughed in, as herein before directed. This will not only 
provide a good dressing of manure for the succeeding corn crop, 
but will cover up such a quantity of clover seed as will furnish 
an abundant supply for the wheat crop, which is to succeed the 
corn crop. One great advantage attending this rotation is. 
that it wholly saves the expense and trouble of sowing clover 
seed among the growing wheat. It also affords two grain 
crops in every three years. This, in England, would be con- 
sidered as too exhausting. But I am persuaded our rich lands 
of the west, which have not been much reduced by bad hus- 
bandry, will bear this course of cropping without deteriorating 
the soil, especially if an upper dressing of manure is applied, 
preceding each corn crop, that is to say, every third year. 

In clay soils the corn crop should occur less frequently. The 
rotation, in a shift of four fields, might be clover, clover, corn 
wheat. Or, where the soil is naturally thin, or has been much 
reduced by bad husbandry, the rotation might be three crops 
of clover, and one of corn, and one of wheat. Clover should, 



84 

m these courses, be the preparatory crop for corn, and plough- 
ed in as herein before directed and a top dressing of manure 
applied, to the extent the farm will afford. In clay soils the 
wheat crop should be assisted by a dressing of plaster of Par- 
is, (sulphate of lime,) from a peck to a bushel per acre. If the 
smaller quantity only is applied, it may be stirred in the 
wheat, having been previously moistened for that purpose,, 
when about to sow. If the larger quantity is used, (and it is 
best to do so, if to be had,) it should be sowed broad cast, at 
the time of sowing- the clover seed, in February. The corn 
crop will also be much improved by applying half a table 
spoonful to each hill of corn, either at the time of planting or 
as soon as the corn comes up.* 

For farmers who do not desire to raise wheat, the following 
rotation will be found convenient and profitable. Upon rich 
lands, which have not been much reduced by bad husbandry, 
corn, corn, rye, rye, the two latter to be fed off on the ground 
In this course, the second crop of corn will be followed by rye, 
sowed in the fall, pastured the next winter and spring, till the 
1 5th. of April, and then suffered to go to seed. When ripe it 
should be fed off to hogs and other stock on the ground. About 
September, or so soon as the fall rains cause the remains of 
the rye on the ground to sprout, the stock should be taken off 
There will be sufficient rye left to seed the ground, and so soon 
as it shall have attained a sufficient growth, it may again be 
pastured through the following winter and spring, till the mid- 
dle of April, when it should, a second time, be suffered to go 
to seed and fed off as before, until the proper period for remo- 
ving the stock. It may again be pastured during the follow- 
ing winter. But care should be taken not to leave the stock on 
after the frost gets out of the ground, as this would cause the 
soil to break up cloddy and render it less productive. By the 
time the ground becomes dry enough for ploughing, there will 
be a thick coat of young rye, which, if well turned under, will 
afford a light dressing of manure for the succeeding crop of 
corn. 

This rotation will require but two fields, and will be very 
convenient to hemp growers and graziers, who do not wish to 

*See a long note on the benefit of plaster of Paris, in the general 
essay on agriculture, p. 70, 



85 

cultivate wheat crops. In consequence of the rye being fed 
off upon the ground, the for eg Ding rotation will rather improve 
than exhaust the soil. But to restore, speedily, that which 
has been exhausted, there should be two crops of clover, suc- 
ceeding the rye crop; or a third crop of rye may be raised to 
advantage, by ploughing the ground after the second crop is 
fed off, from the first to the middle of September. Rye will 
not do well the third year without ploughing the ground, in 
consequence of white clover and other grasses spreading over 
the ground, but a single ploughing may suffice for two addition- 
al crops of rye. 

Where the practice of grazing extensively prevails, large 
portions oT the grazier's farm are kept in blue grass, and pas- 
tured for a number of years in succession. These pasture 
grounds, after having been kept a long period in grass, are oc- 
casionally ploughed up and planted in corn. This is certainly 
a fine preparation for that crop; and if the period, during which 
the land is kept in grass, in proportion to the time it has been 
in corn, be considerable, it is well adapted to the improvement 
of land. But if proper care be not taken in ploughing a stiff 
blue grass sod, there will be a great difficulty in cultivating the 
corn crop. If, however, the proper method is adopted, these 
difficulties may be avoided. There are two modes of convert- 
ing blue grass sod into arable ground, which may be practised 
to advantage. One is to put a strong team to a large plough, 
suitable for turning over a stiff sod. The plough should have 
a cutter attached to it, for the purpose of cutting the turf, and 
thus enable the plough totur n it over to the depth of five or six 
inches, and lay it so smoothly as to have the grass side flat, 
and the mould alone exposed. The harrow should follow in the 
same direction with the plough, and by running several times 
over the ground the interstices will be filled and the turf so 
completely buried that the grass cannot readily grow. If this 
operation be performed in the fall or early in the winter, the 
sod will be so completely rotted, by the time it is necessary to 
commence ploughing for corn in the spring, as to admit of its 
being stirred advantageously. But if the sod be turned over 
in the spring, then it will be proper, by repeated harrowing, 
to form a sufficient depth of mould to admit of laying off the 
ground for corn without turning up the sod. By using light 



86 

ploughs and small harrows, to run between the corn, or the 
corn cultivator, the crop may be cultivated without turning up 
the sod, and with very little labor. By the following year the 
sod will be completely decomposed, and will leave the ground 
mellow and in fine condition for a crop.* 

If the operation of turning the sod be well performed, this 
mode of cultivating corn will be attended with great advanta- 
ges. The sod beneath will keep the ground light, and the 
yield, if the season be favorable, will be very large. If, how- 
ever, the land do not lie favourable for turning sod (if, for in- 
stance, the ground is so situated that the sod must, in part, be 
thrown up hill,) it may be difficult to turn it over so as to bury 
the green sward. In that case it will be very troublesome to 
cultivate. 

The other method of managing blue grass sod is more effec- 
tual in obviating the difficulties arising from the unfavourable- 
ness of the ground for turning sod, and ought to be preferred 
by all farmers, who have an opportunity of procuring suitable 
implements. 

A properly constructed plough with a cutter attached to it, 
should merely skim off the green sward to the depth of an 
inch or two, which should be followed by another plough, run- 
ning in the same furrow, to throw up the mould to the depth 
of five or six inches. Thus, after the first round, a deep fur- 
row would be formed, into the bottom of which the skimming 
plough would throw the green sward skimmed off in the sec. 
ond round, which would be covered to the depth of five or six 
inches by the second plough, and soon in succession, till the 
whole field is ploughed. In this way the green sward is de- 
tached, and buried so deep that it need not be disturbed in the 
process of cultivating the crop. Being entirely covered, it 
will serve the double purpose of keeping the ground light and 
furnishing a dressing of manure. 

If the same ground upon which corn has been cultivated the 
preceding year, is intended to be again cultivated in corn, it 
is very important that it should be trodden as little as possible 
by stock, especially when the ground is rendered soft by rains, 
or by freezing and thawing. Instead of feeding upon the ground 

*I would advise the same mode of cultivation, when blue grass 
sod is ploughed in the fall or winter. 






87 

the small remains of fodder which are left, after the corn is 
pulled, it is much better to cut up the corn, and put it in shocks, 
after it is fully ripe. The fodder may be fed off, either with 
corn, or after the corn has been shucked, according to cir- 
cumstances. If the corn has been detached from the fodder, 
the latter ought to be fed in suitable feeding pens, with a view 
to the saving of manure. And it would always be advisable 
to haul it off, in large slides, having suitable shelving, when 
the ground is either frozen, covered with snow, cr not too much 
softened by rains. That there may not be a necessity of 
hauling fodder when the ground is so soft as to injure it by tread- 
ing, a suitable time should be selected for hauling and putting 
in rick, a quantity of fodder, to be kept as a reserve, and to 
be fed fromonlv when the weather is not suitable for hauling 
from the field. The rick should be made by setting the fodder 
against poles, and should, of course, be as convenient to the 
feeding pen as possible. 

The cutting up of corn, and removing the fodder to feeding 
pens, would not only occasion the saving of much manure, 
but would leave the field in good condition for early ploughing, 
thus affording the ground the benefit of the spring fir 
which will greatly assist in pulverizing the soil. But a still 
greater benefit would result from preventing the corn ground 
being trodden by stock, when in a soft state, during the winter 
and spring months. 

If ground has been sufficiently renovated and properly pre- 
pared for a crop of corn, the process of cultivation is very sim- 
ple. The ploughing should be deep and thorough, and if prac- 
ticable, early enough to afford the ground the benefit of the 
spring freezes. If ploughed early in the winter, or late the 
preceding fall, it would be still better, as the soil would be there- 
by more completely pulverized, a matter of great importance 
in the culture of the corn crop. Except where sod is turned 
over, the ground should be suffered to lie in a rough state till 
aboat the time of laying off for planting, and should be then 
well harrowed, taking care that this operation be performed 
when the ground is sufficiently dry to pulverize well. The 
harrowing will destroy any young weeds which may have 
sprung up, and will level the ground preparatory to check- 
ering it off for planting. It should now be laid off one way at 



88 

the proper distance for planting, with a large plough, cutting 
the furrows as deep as can be conveniently done. A second 
plough, suitable for the purpose (a well constructed shovel or 
coulter plough will answer) should follow in the same furrow, 
to loosen the ground as deep as possible. When a field is thus 
laid off one way, it should, as soon as convenient, be crossed in 
the other direction for planting, leaving the rows equally dis- 
tant each way. The laying off for planting should be done 
with a small, steady running one horse plough, which should 
not cut a furrow more than two or three inches deep. This 
method would leave a dsep loose soil at the intersection of the 
two furrows, and would remove the clods from the furrow so 
as not to be in the way in covering corn. Careful droppers 
should follow the plough, or ploughs, laying off the second way, 
who should be particular to drop the corn precisely at the in- 
tersection of the two furrows, and the hands following with 
the hoes should be careful to cover the corn with fine mould, 
(cutting the clods from the hill, if any) precisely at the place 
where it was dropped, except when they discover an error in 
dropping. Attention to the foregoing directions is important 
for two purposes, 1. That the corn may be planted where it 
will have immediately beneath its roots a deep loose soil, 
which they can penetrate with ease; and, 2. That the rows of 
corn may be straight, both tvays, and thus enable the ploughs 
with very little aid from the hoes to keep the corn clear of 
weeds and grass. A shallow furrow in laying off the second 
way is attended with several advantages. 1. The ground is 
not so apt to wash during heavy rains, as when the furrow is 
broad and deep. 2. The clods will not so readily fall back into 
the furrow. 3. The corn will not be so liable to be covered by 
clods rolling on it at the first ploughing, in consequence of there 
being a greater width between the furrows. 

There are various opinions as to the proper distance at which 
corn should be planted. This must depend upon the nature 
of the soil, its degree of fertility, and the number of stalks 
in a hill. My own experience inclines me to the opinion that 
four feet apart, each way, and three stalks in a hill, is the prop- 
er medium for the rich calcarious soil of Kentucky, having a 
deep vegetable mould. This would give 2722 5-10 hills, and 
8167 stalks per acre, supposing each hill to have its full com- 



M 

pliment. It would be prudent to drop four or five grains in 
each hill, and thin the corn at the proper period, to three stalks 
in each hill. If large corn be planted, each hundred good ears, 
in ordinary seasons, will be equivalent to a bushel ; and, con- 
sequently, if each hill will average three ears (the double ears 
will usually make up for the missing stalks) the product will 
be 81| bushels per acre. If the season be favorable, the yield 
may be still greater.* 

But if the ground has been much reduced by bad husband- 
ry, or the corn be planted in a clay soil, it should be thinned to 
two stalks in a hill. This would give 5445 stalks to the acre. 
if none bo. missing, and a product of 54 45-100 bushels, suppo- 
sing each hundred ears to make a bushel. Bat it must be rec- 
ollected, that, if the soil is not good, the ears may be less, and 
the product consequently diminished. 

If oak land be of the poorer kind, it may be necessary to 
increase the distance. If 4h feet should be deemed necessary 
this would give 2150 hills, and 4300 stalks per acre, allowing 
two for each hill. 

Ground may be so very poor as not to be capable of sustain- 
ing more than one stalk in a hill. It might then be planted 
four feet each way, which would give 2122 stalks per acre. 

Soms farmers are of opinion, that drilling is a better meth- 
od of planting to secure large crops. With extraordinary care 
in planting and cultivating a small crop, it is probable a larger 
yield may be obtained. But the advantages of a small in- 
crease of productpcr acre will not be equivalent to the increa- 
sed labor in cultivating the corn, cutting, shocking, hauling of 
fodder, &,c. I would, therefore, by no means recommend the 
drilling as a general practice. 

When planted in squares it can be ploughed both ways, be 
better cultivated and with much less manuel labor. As soon 
after the corn is planted as practicable, a single furrow with a 



*I have gathered a part of my crop for the present year, planted 
and cultivated as above directed, and the product is from 95 to 100 
bushels per acre. The early part of the season was entirely too wet, 
but after the 1st of July was very favorable. If the ground, in which 
corn is planted be very rich, it may be planted 34 feet each way, and 
three stalks left in a hill, equal to 10,665 per acre. If the com is of 
the largest kind, and the season favorable, eighty good ears will pro- 
duce a bushel, and the yield will be one hundred and thirty three 
bushels per acre. 



90 

shovel plough should be run between the rows, in a direction 
opposite to that in which it was planted. This is an effectual 
security against the corn being washed up by heavy rains, 
and prepares the ground for the next ploughing, which should 
be in the direction in which it was planted, unless the ground 
be very foul. In that case it may be proper to run two addi- 
tional furrows in the same way, in which the shovel plough 
had previously run, throwing the dirt from the corn. 

If the ground be tolerably level, and have but few stumps in 
it, a large harrow may be used to advantage, when the corn is 
about four or five inches high. The horses by which the har- 
row is drawn should be made to walk between alternate rows, 
and the harrow dragged over the corn, having previously re- 
moved such of the teeth as would come in contact with young 
plants. This process is deemed very important, by some far- 
mers, in the cultivation of the crop; and, where the ground is 
very weedy, is well calculated to keep them under till the corn 
is large enough to hoe. But if the ground in which the corn 
is planted has been sufficiently freed from weeds, and properly 
prepared by previous ploughing and harrowing, the after har- 
rowing may be dispensed with. 

A small barshare, Dudley, or McCormick plough 
may be next used, running the bar next to the corn, and 
throwing the dirt in the middle. The hoes should follow to 
clear the hills from weeds and grass; or if they be very small, 
cutting away those adjacent to the young plants, and covering 
up those standing in the hill, by drawing some light mould 
around the corn. It is very important in this stage of the crop 
to destroy the weeds and grass growing among the plants. If 
the operation be well performed the plough alone will be suf- 
ficient afterwards to keep the corn free from weeds and grass. 

Various opinions are entertained as to the best kind of 
plough to be used in the cultivation of the corn crop. After 
the ploughing, which is accompanied by the hoes, I have used 
the shovel plough in preference to all others. It is the most 
economical, being the least expensive, in the first instance,, 
and costs less to keep it in repair. It requires a narrower 
head land at the end of the rows for turning, and in conse- 
quence of the ease with which it can be managed, will break 
down less corn. It ploughs deeper, throws a wider furrow. 



91 

leaves the ground in a state less liable to wash, and works the 
corn better, and does more work than any plough I have tried. 
It must be remarked, however, that if corn ground is allowed 
to become foul with grass, especially foxtail, the shovel plough 
will not answer as well as some others, after the grass has ob- 
tained a complete set, and a luxuriant growth. But if taken 
in time, no plough answers better to keep it under; and corn 
should be ploughed so frequently as to prevent grass from get- 
ting to such a size as not to be easily destroyed bv stirring 
the ground. It should be ploughed alternately, each wav, and 
deep enough to cut the roots between the rows. This, so far 
from injuring the corn, will much assist its growth, as young 
roots will quickly shoot forth, whenever the old ones are bro- 
ken, and these will furnish nutrition to the growing corn more 
rapidly than the old ones. In a word, there need be no fear 
of injuring corn by cultivating it too much, if care be taken 
to work it only when the ground is in proper condition. My 
experience is not sufficient to enable me to speak of the culti- 
vator as a substitute for the shovel plough. It is well worthy 
of trial, and where the ground is free from stumps, or nearly 
so, it might be used to great advantage in preparing corn 
ground for sowing wheat, and in putting in that crop, as it 
would leave a more level surface than the shovel plough. But 
if the plough should be preferred, so far as my experience 
extends, next to the shovel, I would recommend the Dudley 
plough. This is somewhat like the McCormack plough, ex- 
cept that it is made of wrought, instead of cast iron, and is in 
one entire piece, instead of having a detached mould board. 
In that respect it has the advantage of the McCormack plough, 
which, at the joining of the share and mould board, cannot 
make so nice a fit, as where it is all in one piece. It is also 
lighter and scours, or wears smooth, and is kept in order so 
much easier than cast iron mould boards, the latter being 
much more liable to rust than wrought iron. Its greatest dis- 
advantage is the difficulty of repairing by unskilful smiths. 

The number of times corn should be ploughed, must depend 
upon the nature of the soil, and other circumstances, of which 
the judicious farmer will be the best judge. In grass lands, 
which are generally, in a great degree, free from weeds, three 
or four ploughings may suffice; in very weedy ground, five or 



92 

six may be necessary. In general nothing is lost by frequent 
ploughing, as the crop will be better, and the weeds will be 
prevented from seeding the ground, for a future crop. 

Many farmers cease ploughing their corn at the commence- 
ment of harvest. The consequence is that the weeds run to 
seed, and ripen, which not only injures the crop, but unneces- 
sarily exhausts the ground (for all vegetables exhaust much 
more at the time of ripening their seed than at any other 
time,) and moreover furnish a crop of seed, for the ensuing 
year. Corn should always be ploughed, at least once, and if 
very weedy, twice after harvest. The intervals between the 
ploughing, after the hoeing operation is completed, should not 
exceed from eight to twelve days. It is particularly impor- 
tant to stir the corn ground after heavy rains, to prevent it 
from baking. If suffered to lie long, after heavy baking rains, 
when the crop is in an advanced stage, the corn is very apt to 
fire, when again ploughed. This is a great and serious injury 
to the crop, and one from which it never entirely recovers. It 
is very important, therefore, that it should be ploughed as soon as 
practicable, after each heavy rain, taking care not to commence 
ploughing when the ground is too wet, that is when there is so 
much moisture in it as to make the soil adhere, like half wet 
mortar. When it is sufficiently dry to crumble into a fine 
mould, and not before, should the ploughs commence running 
after much rain has fallen. To plough ground when very wet. 
is exceedingly injurious, and should always be avoided. Long 
continued rains will, occasionally, severely task the patience of 
the farmer, when his corn crop is suffering, but patience, on 
occasions of this kind, is a virtue which will generally be well 
rewarded, by an increased product of his corn crop, besides 
preserving his land from injury, by ploughing it when too wet. 

Corn is frequently injured by cutting it too green. This is 
done by many farmers, under the mistaken idea, that the fod- 
der will be better, if the corn is cut while the blades are green. 
The reverse is true. If cut while the blades are green, and 
put in shock, the fodder will scarcely be fit for any kind of stock. 
Thus, by attempting to make superior fodder, the farmer fre- 
quently ruins both fodder and corn. The cutting of corn 
should not be commenced till all the blades below, and nearly 
all above the ear are drv. When only two or three blades 






93 

above the ear, show any remains of the green colour; and 
when such is the general state of the field, the operation of 
cutting up corn should be commenced, ^taking care to begin 
with that part of the crop which is most advanced,) and should 
be completed as rapidly as possible, as the blades, aft; r 
they become dry, are liable to injury from dews and rain. 
Hemp hooks are the most convenient instruments for cutting. 
It should be cut about a foot from the ground, as it will stand 
much better in shocks, when the ear is brought nearer to the 
ground than it would be if the corn were cut close to the 
earth. There will also be less weight to handle in shocking, 
hiuiing, ricking, feeding, &.C., while nothing will be lost, that 
is fit for fodder. From fourteen to sixteen hills square should be 
put in each shock. The former will contain 1915 hills, and 
will give nearly fourteen shocks to the acre, supposing the 
corn to be planted four feet apart each way. The litter will be 
I0| shocks nearly per acre. I prefer the former, if the corn 
be large, and stands well in the hill, tint is three stalks in 
each. But if it does net stand regular in the hill, or if tin; 
stalks be of moderate size, then sixteen hills square will m 
the shocks of a better size. 

The saving of corn in the shock, without injury, depends al- 
together upon the manner in which the shocks are put up. If 
they are set up so as to stand firmly, there is no danger of the 
corn injuring: but if the operation is carelessly, or unskilfully 
performed, they are liable to twist round, and settle down, so 
as to leave the top open. When this happens, the rain will 
penetrate the shocks, ruin the fodder, and greatly injure the 
corn. Shocks should be thus constructed. The stalks of 
four hills (left standing for the purpose,) should be inclined to- 
wards each other, and tied by their tops, so as to form a kind of 
cone, over the centre between the four hills.* When this is 
done, while some hands are cutting, those who best understand 
the process of shocking, should gather the corn by armsful, and 
set it up around the four hills, thus tied together, setting the 
first four armsful in the intervals between the bent corn, 
bringing the buts so near to each other as to make the stalks 



*This operation should be performed a week or ten days before the 
corn is fit to cut up, as thereby the labor of cutting and shocking 
will be facilitated. 



94 

occupy nearly a perpendicular position. In like manner the 
successive armsful should be set regularly all around the four 
hills of corn, tied as above directed, still keeping the buts well 
pressed together, at the bottom, so that the pressure at the 
top, towards the centre, may not be so great as to break down 
the stalks tied together. This should be further guarded a- 
gainst by placing equal quantities of corn all around, so that 
the pressure may be equal from all sides towards the centre. 

The tops of the corn stalks being smaller than the buts, 
they will naturally incline inward, so soon as the fodder be- 
comes dampened by rain or dew,* but this inclination should 
not be very great, otherwise the shocks will not so well turn 
the rain; besides, as the corn may not bo equally distributed 
all around the shocks, the pressure will be unequal towards 
the centre, and the effect of this inequality will be greater in 
proportion as the corn varies from a perpendicular position. 
Care should also be taken to set up the corn, so as not to give 
it an inclination to the right or left, or a leaning sideways. If 
this be not attended to, the shock, in settling together — as it 
will when it becomes clamp by dews or rain — will be certain to 
twist round, and cause the top of the shock to open, and thus 
expose it to great injury from the weather. This point is the 
rcnst important thing to be attended to, in shocking corn, an 
operation upon which the complete preservation of the crop de- 
pends. That part of the corn which is not intended to be fed 
away with the fodder, must, of course, be shucked in the field. 
This should be done while the fodder is damp, otherwise there 
will be a considerable loss by its crumbling. As fast as the 
corn is shucked, the fodder should again be put in shock, and 
this cannot be well done, when it is dry* Hence, after a damp 
spell, or when the weather is warm and giving, is the best 
time for shucking corn out of the shocks. If this operation is 
in progress, during the feeding season, a part of the fodder may 
be hauled at once, to the feeding pen, and to a rick adjoining 
it, and so far the trouble of re-shocking may be avoided. 

Some farmers do not pursue the practice of cutting up their 
corn; and among these two different methods, of saving their 
crops, prevail By some it is contended that shucking the 
corn upon the stalks, as they stand in the field, and hauling the 
corn thence, to the crib, is the most economical, or greatest sa- 



95 

ving of labor. The practice with others is to pull their corn, 
haul it to a suitable place, and shuck, and then crib it. There 
can be no doubt that the sini3 number of hinds will, by the 
former method, secure in the crib, a greater quantity of the 
corn, in the same time, than by the latter. 

The plan is, however, subject to two objections. 1st. By 
this method all the corn, good and bad, must be cribbed togeth- 
er. 2nd. The shucks mast either be lost, or stock must be 
turned in the cornfield to feed upon fhcm. If this be don?, the 
ground will be much injured by the treading of the stock, 
when rendered soft bv rains, or by freezing and thawinc. This 
evil may, in some degree, be avoided by turning the stock into 
the field only when the ground is frozen hard. But our win- 
ters are so open, and the changes in the weather so frequent 
and sudden, as to defeat alnust every precaution of this kind. 
In point of fact we rarely see farmers take the trouble to have 
their stock removed at every sudden change of the weather, 
particularly when that change is accompanied by heavy and 
long continued rains. Comfort is most generally consulted, 
on all occasions of this kind, and the cattle are left to feed 
themselves, rather than encounter the trouble and inconven- 
ience of removing them to a place where they may be fed. 
And thus the ground is left to suffer rather than expose the 
farmer or his hands to inconvenience. 

The other plan is somewhat more tedious, and (if there be 
no shelter under which to throw the corn as it is hauled, and 
to shuck it, and save the shucks,) is liable to more serious ob- 
jections than the first. 

If, however, the farmer will provide himself with a cheap 
and suitable building, under which his corn can be protected 
while he is gathering, hauling and shucking it; and where he 
can save, salt, and stow away his shucks till the time for feed- 
ing them, the latter plan will, perhaps, be entitled to the pref- 
erence. Much of the corn, according to this plan, can be 
ghucked during bad weather. It can be assorted, and the dif- 
ferent kinds hauled to the appropriate places for feeding. The 
shucks can be salted, and secured from the weather, and fed 
away without much inconvenience in bad weather. The 
stock, fed upon them, will furnish some manure; and above all, 
this plan will keep the stock from injuring the land, by tread- 



96 

ing it when rendered soft by rains, and by freezing and thaw- 
ing. If this plan be adopted, there should be a crib, for hold- 
ing the nubbin corn, and that which is unsound, so situated 
that this part of the corn may at once be put into it, and thus 
leave none but the unsound corn to be removed to distant cribs. 
The process of assorting the corn may thus be performed 
while shacking it, and the defective parts, by means of baskets, 
deposited in the adjoining crib; or it may be assorted as the 
sound corn is thrown into the wagon to haul to the appropriate 
crib intended for it, while the wagon is unloading. 






CULTIVATION OF HEMP. 

The first thing to be done, by a person who is about to en- 
gage in the culture of hemp, is to rear seed for his future crop. 
This is not only important, as regards economy, but still more 
so for other reasons. There is no seed so easily injured and 
rendered unfit for sowing, as that upon which we depend for 
producing a hemp crop. If the seed is perfectly sound, has 
been well ripened, and not injured by heating after it is housed, 
the hemp cultivator knows how much to sow to the acre, to 
make it yield to the best advantage. But if the seed has been 
injured by heating, or, from any other cause, is so detective 
th?t only half or two-thirds will ccme up, the crop will be 
greatly injured. If too small a quantity of seed be sown, the 
stalks will grow large and coarse; and, besides producing less, 
the quality of the hemp will be inferior. If, to insure a suffi- 
cient degree of thickness, you sow a double quantity of seed 
to the acre," 5 and all should come up, there is not only a loss 
of one half of the seed, but the crop will be injured, in conse- 
quence of the hemp being too much crowded. 

It is said by some farmers that you cannot easily sow too 

much seed on the ground, as it will thin itself sufficiently, and 

only so much seed will grow as it will support; and that by 

sowing an over quantity of seed, the danger of the hemp 

growing too coarse will be obviated. This is certainly true, 

but where a double quantity of seed is sown, that portion of the 

hemp which will not come to perfection will take from the 

more thrifty plants a part of the nourishment which they 

would otherwise have received, up to the period when the un- 

I* 



98 

derling hemp perishes f and consequently will not attain as 
great a height as it would otherwise have done. Besides, that 
portion of the hemp which perishes, will be an obstruction in 
cutting, spreading and breaking, without furnishing any lint. 
It may, therefore, be laid down as a correct principle, in the 
culture of hemp, that only so much seed should be sown per 
acre, as the soil will bring to perfection, or as near that quanti- 
ty as practicable. But as it is impossible to distribute the seed 
so as to give every foot of ground its due proportion, it is more 
safe to sow rather an over than an under quantity of seed. 

The foregoing considerations, it is believed, will be sufficient 
to impress upon the cultivators of hemp the importance of rais- 
ing thair own seed. They will thus have a perfect knowledge 
of its quality, and will therefore know how to regulate the 
quantity to be sown per acre. They will, moreover, be assu- 
red that it is free from other seeds, such as fox-tail &,c. 

The richest ground is the best adapted to raising of hemp 
seed. And that which has been highly manured is better than 
newly cleared land, even of the most fertile quality. Land 
which has been long in grass, and pastured by cattle or sheep, 
is very suitable for the purpose. To prepare ground for hemp 
seed, it should be finely pulverized by repeated ploughings: 
and if grass land is intended to be used, it should be ploughed 
the preceding fall, so that the ground may be not only more 
completely pulverized, but that the danger of the hemp being 
cut by worms may be avoided. Timothy meadow, upon which 
sheep have been long pastured, during the winter, is finely 
adapted for hemp seed, but it should be ploughed in the fall, 
and, if not very rich, should have a dressing of manure. 

The seed should be planted as we do corn, either in hills cr 
drill?. I prefer the former, because it admits of easier and 
better cultivation, as the plough can be used both ways. It is 
usual to plant five feet apart, each way, and suffer four or five 
stalks to stand in a hill until the blossom hemp is removed, and 
then reduce the number so as not to exceed two stalks in a hill. 
Thus there would be two seed plants for each twenty-five 
square feet. It would be a better practice to make the hills 
three feet six inches apart, each way, and thin the hemp to 
three stalks in a hill, till the blossom hemp appears, and at the 
proper time cut out the blossom or male hemp; and, if necessa- 



90 

ry, a part of the seed hemp, so as to reduce the latter to one 
stalk in the hill. If each hill should contain one stalk, there 
would be two seed stalks for each twenty-four and a half 
square feet. This will give a greater number of seed stalks 
per acre than planting five feet each way, and leaving two in 
a hiil. According to this plan, each seed plant will stand bv 
itself, and, having its appropriate space of ground, can spread 
its branches without obstruction. According to the other plan, 
two seed plants, standing together, will obstruct each other, 
in putting forth lateral branches, andean scarcely be expected 
to produce twice as much as the single stalk. 

The ground for hemp seed, having been well prepared by at 
least two ploughings, and a number of harrowings, sufficient 
to pulverize the ground, it should be laid off as above directed, 
and planted in the same manner as corn, except that the seed 
need not be covered more than an inch or an inch and a half 
deep. Twelve or fifteen seed .should bo dropped in each hill. 
which should be somewhat scattered to prevent them from be- 
ing too much crowded in the hill. Though good hemp seed is 
certain to come up, yet it is prudent to plant about the number 
suggested to guard against casualties. Soon after the hemp 
seed comes up, a small shovel plough should be run through, 
both ways, once in a row. If the ground is not foul, the plough- 
ing may be delayed till the hemp is a few inches high, which 
will enable the ploughman to avoid throwing the dirt on the 
tender plants. The hoes should follow the second ploughing, 
and clean away the weeds, if any, in or near the hill, and thin 
out the hemp to seven or eight stalks. These should be the 
most thrifty plants, and somewhat separated from each 
other. The ploughing should be repeated, from time to time. 
so as to keep the ground light and free from weeds. And when 
the plants are about a foot or a foot and a half high, the hoes 
should again go over the ground and carefully cut down any 
weeds or grass which may have escaped the plough. The plants 
should be still further thinned out, at this time, leaving but four 
in a hill, and some fine mould drawn around the plants, so as to 
cover any small weeds that may have come up around them. 
After seed hemp has attained the height of a foot and a half, it 
will soon be too large to plough, but it ought to have one plough- 
ing after the last hoeing. The ground, by this time, will have 
* L.of C. > 



100 

become so much shaded by the hemp plants as to prevent the 
weeds from growing, so as to do any injury, and nothing more 
need to be done but for a boy to follow the plough, and (if three 
and a half feet be the distance of the hills apart,) reduce the 
number of plants invariably to three, taking care to remove 
those which the last ploughing may have broken or injured, by 
the treading of the horse or otherwise. 

The next operation will be to cut out the blossom or male 
hemp. This, according to the opinion of some farmers, should 
be done as soon as the blossom begins to show, in order to make 
room for the seed hemp to grow and spread its branches. This 
opinion must be taken with some allowance. The farina or 
pollen of the male hemp is necessary to fertilize the seed bear- 
ing plants. The seed of the latter would be wholly unpro- 
ductive, if the whole of the male hemp should be cut before 
its pollen has been thrown out. If those farmers who cut their 
blossom hemp, at the first moment it can be distinguished from 
the seed bearing plants, do not entirely destroy their seed, it is 
because many blossom plants escape, in consequence of their 
not having shown their sex at the time the blossom hemp is cut, 
or because adjacent hemp fields may have furnished a sufficient 
quantity of pollen to fertilize, at least in part, the seed bearing 
plants. It is important to cut the male hemp so soon as it 
has performed its office, because much room is thereby afforded 
to the seed bearing plants to spread their branches. 

The following course might be pursued with advantage. 
When the seed hemp has so far advanced as to enable one read- 
ily to distinguish the male from the female plants, let all the 
blossom hemp be cut out, except one stalk in every other hill, 
and every other row. This would leave one stalk of male 
hemp for every four hills. These, together with the stalks 
which should thereafter blossom, w T ould be sufficient to fertilize 
all the seed bearing plants, and secure a crop of 'perfect seed. 
After the blossom plants, thus left, have been permitted to re- 
main until they have pretty well discharged their pollen 
(which can easily be ascertained by dust ceasing to flow from 
them when agitated) they, also, should be cut down. Some 
farmers top the seed plants, when five or six feet high, 
to make them branch more freely, but this is not necessary 
where but one or two seed bearing plants are suffered to re- 
main in each hill. 






101 

Hemp seed should be planted early in the month of April. 
Early£>lanting succeeds best. If the ground is in proper con- 
dition, it may be planted even cs early as the middle of March. 
Hemp is a hirdy plant, and will not, as supposed by some, be 
injured by frost.* It is also an error to suppose seed hemp 
should not be cut before it receives a slight frostf If planted 
early, it will be fit to cut from the first to the fifteenth tf Sep- 
tember, and there is no necessity to wait for frost. On the 
contrary, it is better to cut before it receives any frost, be- 
cause the seeds drop out by handling much more easily after it 
has received a frost than before, and consequently there will be 
a greater'waste. In cutting the seed plants, care should be ta- 
ken to agitate them as little as possible, as the seeds drop out 
very easily when they are ripe. A sharp hemp hook, of a 
circular form, is the best instrument for cutting seed hemp. 
The operator should grasp the stalk in one hand, and bend it 
gently towards him, and with the other should place the blade 
of the hemp hook against the stalk, about a foot from the 
ground, and by a gentle pull the stalk will be cut transversely, 
with but little agitation. The stalks should be laid gently on 
the ground, so as not to shatter out the seed, four hills in a 
heap. This operation should be performed in the morning, 
while the dew is on the hemp, as the seeds will then be less li- 
able to shatter out. There are two modes of managing seed 
hemp after it is cut. One is to set the stalks up in open shocks 
until they are sufficiently dry to thresh out the seed, and then, 
haul them on a sled to a dirt floor, prepared for the purpose, 
and there thresh out the seed. 

The other method is to prepare a large floor on the earth, 

adjacent to the seed hemp, and by means of forks and poles 

arranged along the floor, to set up the seed plants in a kind of 

rick, the butts on the ground, and the tops against the pole 

on each side. 

The former plan is objectionable, upon the ground that all 

the seed which shatters out before the time of threshing, will 
be lost; and also, because of the impossibility of removing 
the seed hemp from the shocks to the slide without a conside- 
rable loss of seed. The latter plan requires more labor in pre- 
paring the floor, but is much more economical in saving seed, 

♦Farmer's Guide, 228. flhic>. 



102 






and should be preferred. A sled should be employed to trans- 
fer the seed hemp to the floor. If a sheet be spread^pn the 
sled, there will be scarcely any loss of seed in hauling, as it 
can be driven so close to the floor as that all the seed that may 
shatter off in hauling will either fall on the sheet or on the 
floor. The seed hemp should be suffered to stand in rick till 
thoroughly dry. If it should receive some rain, it will be an 
advantage, as this will cause the seed to seperate more readily 
from the chaff, and will facilitate the operation of threshing. 
If the season should be very wet, there may be danger of the 
seed sprouting in the rick. This must be guarded against, by 
opening'the tops of the hemp, (which will have been pressed 
together by the rain,) so as to give it air and sun, as soon as 
the weather clears off". After much rain the seed may be 
threshed out, even when the tops are quite damp or even wet, 
and it should be got out without delay, to prevent the seed from 
sprouting. But if got out when damp, the chaff and hemp seed 
will become warm in a few hours after it is heaped up. To 
prevent its injuring, it should be run through a fan, on the same 
day it is threshed, and taken to the barn or some dry shelter, 
where it should be spread out, and frequently raked or stirred, 
until it becomes thoroughly dry and cured, when it should be 
again run through the fan, and put away in barrels with open 
heads, in a house which is dry, and to which rats can have no 
access, as they are very destructive to hemp seed. A house 
erected upon posts, four feet high, is the best security against 
these troublesome animals. If the seed hemp get a rain after 
it is set up in rick, it may be threshed out in a week or ten 
days, or sooner if it begins to sprout. If it get no rain, it may 
stand longer in rick. The most convenient mode of thresh- 
ing is for each hand to have a plank, about twelve or fifteen 
feet long, and fifteen or eighteen inches wide, set up against 
the pole, (at an angle of forty-five degrees,) against which the 
seed hemp was ricked. The operator threshes out the seed by 
taking one, two, or three plants at a time, (according to their 
size,) in his hands, and beating them against the plank. As 
the seed comes out very easily, a few blows are sufficient to 
knock all the seed out, when the plants are thrown off the 
floor, in heaps, where they may be burnt, or may be used for 
covering shelters for hogs, or cattle, &c. They are said to be 



103 

valuable also for making charcoal for powder manufactories. 
They are of no value for lint. 

It is the safest course, even when the seed hemp is perfectly 
dry at the time of threshing, to haul the seed, after it has been 
once run through the fan, to the barn or some dry shelter, and 
there spread it out thin, and suffer it to become thoroughly cu- 
red before it is cleaned and put away. This will be a great 
security against its heating in the barrels, which would be cer- 
tain to spoil the seed. If, however, the seed hemp has stood 
long enough in the rick, for the seed to become perfectly cured, 
the trouble of hauling it to the barn may be dispensed with, 
and it may be run a second time through the fan, at the place 
where it is threshed. But to avoid getting dirt with the seed, it 
should be run upon a sheet, at the second cleaning, and meas- 
ured thence into bags. 

Old seed will generally not answer for sowing. During the 
summer succeeding the year in which it was reared, it goes 
through a heat, which destroys its vegetating powers. If, 
however, it were to be spread out thin, on a dry floor, before 
the commencement of warm weather and kept thus spread out 
during the summer, there can be no doubt it would answer for 
sowing the ensuing year. Yet it is always safest not to trust 
to old seed without having first tested it by planting a certain 
number of seeds, and thus ascertaining how many will vege- 
tate. 

The floor for getting out seed should be prepared before the 
time for cutting arrives. It should be as convenient as practi- 
cable to save hauling. I usually leave a space along side of 
my seed hemp, for the purpose. This may be planted in pump- 
kins, and cultivated with the plough. Shortly before the seed 
hemp is fit to cut, the pumpkins and vines are removed, the 
ground is well harrowed and then trod by horses, until it be- 
comes sufficiently solid, and is then scraped w T ith hoes, to make 
it smooth, swept, &c. 

The next step in the process of hemp raising, is to prepare 
the ground for receiving the seed. This should be done by 
thoroughly pulverizing the soil. Hemp, more than most other 
crops, requires that this should be done in as complete 
and perfect a manner as possible. The hemp grower may al- 
ways expect his crop to be increased in proportion as this ope- 



104 

ration is well performed. This can be best accomplished by 
ploughing the ground, intended for hemp, the preceding fall, or 
early in the winter, so that it may have the benefit of the win- 
ter frosts. Jt should be ploughed deep, and left in a rough 
state, without harrowing. Not a hoof should be suffered 
to go upon it. Shortly before sowing, it should again be 
ploughed and harrowed. The latter is necessary to level the 
ground, in order to prevent the seed from rolling into the sinu- 
osities, and thus render the hemp uneven. It should now be 
sowed and harrowed both ways, or harrowed one way and then 
rolled or brushed the other way. This is preferable as it will 
lay the surface of the ground more level, and will facilitate the 
cutting operation, enabling the workmen to cut closer to the 
ground and thus save lint. This is the most advisable course 
for early sowing, when there is always a sufficient quantity of 
moisture in the ground to bring the seed up. Bat if there is 
any doubt about there being a sufficient moisture in the ground 
to cause all the seed to vegetate, it is more safe to plough the 
seed in with shovel ploughs. These will cover the seed to 
suchadepth-as will insure their coming up, unless the ground 
should be very dry. In that case there is no alternative but to 
wait for rain before you sow. Different opinions prevail as to 
the proper quantity of seed to be sown per acre. My experi- 
ence, which has been considerable, convinces me that the quan- 
tity of good seed, upon well prepared ground, and sown when 
there is moisture enough to bring it all up, need not exceed 
one bushel and an eighth per acre; but as the most skilful sow- 
er cannot scatter the seed so as to give every portion of ground 
its due proportion, it would be advisable to sow a bushel and a 
peck per acre.* 

Manured ground does not answer so well for hemp, the first 
year, as that which has been laying long in grass. If recently 
and highly manured, it is apt to make the hemp grow too coarse. 
Land which has been several years in clover, (if it had not been 
previously too much reduced by bad husbandry,) is well adap- 
ted to hemp, but it is sometimes seriously affected by the cut 
worm and other insects. To guard against these, clover should 
always be ploughed the previous fall or early in the winter. 

♦Experience, since the writing of the above has convinced me that 
the smaller quantity is best. 



105 

A still greater safeguard is to sow the clover ground late in 

the month of May. 
Hemp may be sowed upon the same ground several years in 

succession, to great advantage ; and as, after the first year, the 
cut worm is usually not very troublesome, there will be a ne- 
cessity of taking the precaution of sowing late but one year. 

Land which has been long in blue grass, especially if pastu- 
red by sheep, is finely adapted to the growth of hemp. But to 
make it produce well the first year, it is essential that the sod 
should be well turned over, the preceding fall, so that it may 
have time to decompose, and become thoroughly pulverized. 

Newly, cleared land is not so good for hemp as that which 
has been in cultivation a year or two in corn. But if sowed 
after corn, the stalks should be cut close to the ground the pre- 
vious fall, and the roots of the corn turned under with a large 
plough, so that they may have time to rot. They will be some- 
what in the way, in cutting the hemp, the first year, but will be 
no trouble afterwards. 

It is very important for the hemp grower, to have his ground 
for hemp set apart in fields, in which nothing else grow?. 
These may be kept for hemp a great length of time without 
any change, and consequently there will be no necessity for 
suffering any kind of stock to go upon the hemp ground. The 
soil will thus be kept light and mellow. As soon as the hemp, 
of the previous crop, is off the ground, it should be ploughed 
deep, turning all the hemp stubble and roots under. If this 
can be done in time to have the benefit of the spring frosts, so 
much the better. It should not be harrowed (if ploughed early 
enough to have the benefit of the spring frosts.) till the time 
for sowing. With one harrowing before, and one after, the 
crop will be pitched. If, in consequence of heavy rains, the 
ground should have become baked, it would be advisable to 
plough the seed in with shovel ploughs, so as to render the 
ground light. And in all cases where there is a doubt wheth- 
er there is a sufficient quantity of moisture in the ground to 
bring the seed up by harrowing, the shovel plough should be 
substituted, as it will cover the seed much deeper, where it 
will find moisture to make it vegetate. If harrowed in, when 
the ground is very dry, that which is covered to some depth 
will sprout and come up, but that portion of the seed which 

K 



106 



; be 



lies near the surface will not vegetate till it rains. If there 
only one week between the coming up of the first and last 
portion of the seed, the latter will be so far behind the other 
as to be always what is call underling hemp, and will be of no 
value, whilst that which came up first will be too thin, and 
will consequently grow very coarse. This should be most 
carefully guarded against.* 

Hemp may be sowed at any time between the 10th of April 
and last of May, when the ground is in a proper state for solv- 
ing, that is neither too n-et nor too dry. Early sowed hemp 
generally produces the best crop. It would be best to sow not 
later than the 20th of May, if it can be avoided, but hemp 
sow T ed the 10th of June will make itself before frost, though 
in general the crop will be light. To give time to cut a large 
crop of hemp before it becomes too ripe, it should be sowed at 
different times, so as to allow four or five weeks between the 
first and last sowing. Some seasons hemp may be sowed as 
early as the first of April. Frosts will not destroy it, but if 
sowed too early, its growth may be considerably checked by a 
succession of cold frosty weather, after the hemp gets up. 
This will have the effect of preventing it from attaining the 
height to which it ought to grow, and will considerably reduce 
the yield per acre. There is, however, not much danger of 

*If some time has elapsed, since ground has heen prepared for sow- 
ing hemp, and especially if much rain haa fallen, it is best to put in 
hemp seed with small ploughs, instead of die harrow. This will not 
only lighten the soil, and leave it in fine condition for the rapid 
growth of hemp, but will destroy the volunteer hemp, which shall 
have come up, from the seed of the previous }~ear. It is important 
to destroy this, else it will get so far ahead of the newly sowed hemp as 
to overshadow and injure it to some extent. This can be effectually 
accomplished only by ploughing the ground. I commonly use shovel 
ploughs for this purpose. But as these will leave the ground too un- 
even for cutting the hemp sufficiently low, 1 would advise brushing the 
ground, with a heavy brush, in the contrary direction, after ploughing 
in the seed. This will be better than harrowing as it will leave the 
ground lighter, an object of much importance in the cultivation of the 
hem]) crop. In laving off ground for sowing hemp seed, it is usual to 
run furrows with a small plough. Where this practice is pursued, 
more than a due proportion of hemp seed will fall and be dragged into 
the farrows, and consequently it will stand too thick to grow to a 
proper heighth. It is a better practice, and a saving of labor to mark 
off lands to sow by, by dragging a log chain instead of ploughing. For 
this purpose I double a log chain, fastening the two ends to a light 
single tree. The pi rson laying off the ground can ride the horse, and 
lay it off with great expedition and accuracy, by using stakes of the 
proper length. This leaves marks plain enough to sow by, and the 
ground is left \c\el and uniform for the reception of the seed." 






107 

this, if not sowed before the 10th of April. If the last sow- 
ing be on the 20th of May, there will be a period of forty 
days between the first and last sowing. This will produce 
such a difference in the period of ripening, as to give sufficient 
time for cutting and ricking. 

The time for cutting or pulling hemp is indicated by the 
leaves of the male hemp becoming yellow, and most of them 
dropping off. Upon a close examination, about this period, it 
will be found that some of the blossom stalks wili have entirely 
shed their leaves, and begun to turn of a dark colour, having 
lost their yellow hue. When this disc made, no time 

should be lost in cutting or pulling the hemp. But it may 
stand a week longer without any very material injury, except 
that the blossom hemp will not take so good a rot, and will be 
somewhat worse to break. 

There is some difference of opinion as to the best m 
of securing hemp after it is ripe. Pulling is still practised by 
some, and it is probable more lint can be saved in that way 
than by cutting. It is certain that by cutting some lint will be 
lost, as with the utmost care, two or 'three inches next the 
ground must be lost. On the other hand, many advantages 
tend the cutting of hemn, which will more than over balance this 
loss. Cutting is more expeditious than pulling. There is consid- 
erably less weight to handle in all the subsequent operations, 
such as taking up and binding, loading cud hauling to the rick 
or stack, loading and hauling out to spread for rotting, again 
taking up and shocking, and finally, the trouble and expense 
of breaking, (the price of breaking pulled hemp being conside- 
rably higher.) In all these operations the roots are very much 
in the way, and particularly so in spreading, and considerably 
increase the time requisite for going through the various mani- 
pulations the hemp must undergo. In a word, when hemp is 
cut, the grower can manage a much larger crop, which will 
greatly more than counterbalance the loss by cutting. To this 
should be added, that cut hemp makes superior lint, and will 
always have a preference over that which has been pulled, be- 
cause of the coarse bark which comes off that part of the stalk 
near the ground forming a part of the lint of the latter. An- 
other advantage in favor of cutting, is that the roots and stub- 
ble, when ploughed under, have a tendency to render the soil 



108 

iight, and, when decomposed, forms a slight dressing of manure. 
These considerations should give a decided preference to cut- 
ting over pulling of hemp. With hemp hooks, tolerable hands 
will cut, on an average, half an acre each; with cradling 
scythes, (W. L, Larimore's,} an acre may be cut with ease, by 
good hands, in hemp not exceeding six or seven feet high. If 
hemp is coarse or taller than seven feet, it cannot be well man- 
aged with scythes.* This instrument requires a smooth bot- 
tom to do good work. 

When hemp is cut or pulled, it should be spread on the ground, 

keeping the butt ends even, and should be suffered to lie till well 
cured* This will require a week, or somewhat less, if the 
weather is clear and warm. If it get a rain, in the meantime, 
it will be an. advantage, as it will cause the leaves more readi- 
ly to leave the stalks. 

There are different modes of treating the hemp crop after 
it is cut and cured. By some the leaves are beat off, and then, 
without binding it in sheaves, it is put in shocks, tying two 
bands round each, one near the top and the other about eigh- 
teen inches lower down. In this condition it is suffered to re- 
main till the proper period for spreading it out to rot. By oth- 
ers it is bound in sheaves, (some beating the leaves off and 
some not,) and put up in shocks, where it is suffered to stand 
till there is leisure, when it is put in stacks or ricks. A third 
practice, (and that which I deem the best.) is to take up the 
hemp as soon as it is sufficiently cured, and bind it in sheaves, 
without beating off the leaves. The binders throw the sheaves 
into two rows, with a sufficient space between for a wagon to 
pass. While the process of taking up and binding is going on, 
a wagon and three hands, (two to pitch and one to load,) is en- 
gaged in hauling the hemp to the rick and ricking it. The 
rick should be in a central part, so as to require the hemp to be 
removed as short a distance as possible. Then the process of 
taking up, binding, hauling, and ricking all progress together. 
In this way, five or six hands will put up a stout rick in a day and 
a half and cover it. By having two wagons and ten hands, it may 

*Mr. Larimore has recently made an improvement on his cradle. 
The improved cradle, I have learned, can be used to advantage in 
cutting hemp of any height, if not too coarse stalked, which should al- 
ways be guarded against, by sowing enough seed on the ground, when, 
in a proper state. 



109 

be accomplished in one day. It is proper to remark, that for 
making the roof of the rick, it is necessary to have long hemp, 
from which the leaves should be beat off. In this state only 
will hemp make a secure roof. RicJcing is preferable to stack- 
ing, because the former secures completely all the hemp from 
the weather, except that which composes the roof, while stack- 
ing leaves the butts exposed. The first practice, above sug- 
gested, is objectionable upon the ground that the outsides of all 
the shocks are exposed to the weather for several mouths, be- 
fore the time for spreading arrives, and is generally much 
injured by the weather, especially during wet fails. If the fall 
should be very dry, the outsides of all the shocks will be par- 
tially rotted; and as these parts must be spread with the part of 
the hemp which has had no rain or dew, they will be too much 
watered before the residue is fit to be taken up, and they will 
sometimes be entirely ruined. 

The second practice, where the leaves are beat off, is objec- 
tionable, because of the great increase of labor, the process of 
beating off leaves being very slow and tedious; and when the 
leaves are not beat off, though there is not so much extra la- 
bor, if the weather is favorable, yet there is danger of the 
hemp being seriously injured if there should be much rain. 
The rain will gradually penetrate the shocks to the very cen- 
tre, and in consequence of the leaves being packed so closely, 
the shocks cannot dry without opening them, and loosening 
the top of each sheaf. And while drying there Will be a risk 
of again getting wet from rain. This plan is, therefore, more 
objectionable than beating off the leaves before shocking. I 
am satisfied, from actual experiment, (having tried all these dif- 
ferent methods.) that the best way of managing hemp, after it 
is cut and perfectly cured, is to bind and rick it as herein be- 
fore described without beating the leaves off, except for the 
cover. 

If the hemp be well cured and ricked, when perfectly dry, 
many of the leaves will shatter off in the process of ricking. 
Most of those remaining on the hemp will shake off when it is 
hauled out and spread. It is an advantage to have the leaves 
pretty well separated from the stalks, before or at the time of 
spreadingout to rot. But this object will be sufficiently attain- 
ed by the handling of the hemp, in the different processes of 
binding, ricking, hauling out, and spreading. K* 



110 

There is a difference of opinion, also, as to the Lest ground 
upon which to spread hemp. Some choose meadow ground, in 
preference to any other place. I formerly pursued that prac- 
tice, but have abandoned it, from a perfect conviction that the 
ground upon which hemp grows is the most suitable place to 
spread it for rotting. 

1. This saves much time in ricking, as the ricks may always 
be on the ground on which the hemp grew, and as nearly cen- 
tral as may be to that part of the hemp which is to be put in 
the rick. 

2. All the manure arising from the leaves, half formed seed, 
&,c.,will be left on the ground. 

3. The hemp rots or is watered quicker and more regularly 
than it does on grass land. 

4. If spread on hemp ground, you are sure to guard against 
stock running there, and the ground is consequently kept in 
good condition for another crop. Besides the ground is bene- 
fitted by being covered with the hemp while rotting. 

5. If spread on meadow ground much of the grass will be 
injured by burning the hemp shives, and if the hemp is not 
sufficiently watered before the grass springs up among it, it 
will not obtain a good rot, and may be seriously injured. 

The best time for spreading hemp is in the month of Decem- 
ber. It then receives what is called "a winter rot," and makes 
the lint of the hemp a light color, and its quality better than 
if spread out early. But where a farmer has a large crop, it 
isdesirable to have a part of his hemp ready to take up late in 
December, so that he may commence breaking in January. To 
accomplish this object, a part of his crop may be spread out 
about the middle of October, It would not be prudent to spread 
earlier, as hemp will not obtain a good rot if spread out when 
the weather is warm. 

The experienced hemp grower is at no loss to tell when 
hemp is sufficiently watered. A trial of a portion of it on the 
break will be the best test for those who have not had much 
experience. When sufficiently watered the stalks of the hemp 
lose that hard sticky appearance or feel which they retain till 
the process is completed. The lint also begins to separate 
from the stalk, and the fibers will show themselves seme 
what like the strings of a fiddle-bow attached to the stalk 






Ill 

at two distant points, and separate in the middle. This is a 
sure indication that the hemp has a good rot. 

The practice of water-rotting has been generally abandon- 
ed. The scarcity of water and supposed unwholesomeness of 
the process have conduced, not a little, to this result. Besides, 
the circum-tance of the manufacturer giving no more for wa- 
ter than dew rotted hemp, has discouraged all attempts to wa- 
ter-rot, to any considerable extent. For rigging of ships, wa- 
ter-rotted hemp is undoubtedly the best, but for bale rope and 
bagging, dew-rotted answers equally well, and, therefore, it 
cannot be expected that the manufacturers of these articles 
should give an additional price for the former. 

Some have advised that hemp, after it has been sufficiently 
water-rotted, should be put under cover. 5 * This is certainly an: 
error. If, after hemp is sufficiently watered, it is put in large 
masses, it goes through a sweating process, which toughens it, 
and renders it much more difficult to break. Besides it would 
cost much labor to haul it from the field, in which it was spread, 
put it under a shelter, and again remove it to some distance 
from the shelter to break it out. In these different handlings, 
the hemp would be a good deal tangled, and much loss of lint 
would result therefrom. The erection of suitable buildings for 
the purpose would, moreover, be attended with considerable 
expense. All this extra labor and expense is wholly unneces- 
sary. When hemp is fit to be taken up, it should be immediate- 
ly put in shock?, without binding, of suitable size. If it is dry 
the shocks should be immediately tied, with a hempband, by 
drawing the tops as closely together as possible, in order to 
prevent the rain from wetting the inside. If carefully put up, 
and tied, they will turn rain completely. Each shock should be 
large enough to produce from fifty to sixty pounds of lint. If 
the hemp should be considerably damp, when taken up, 
the shocks should be left untied at the tops until they 
have time to dry. If shocks are not well put up, they are lia- 
ble to blow down by a strong wind. To guard against this, it 
is necessary, when commencing a shock, to tie a band around 
the first armful or two that may be set up, and then raise up 
the parcel, so tied, and beat it well against the ground, so as to 
make it stand firmly, in a perpendicular direction. The res- 

*Farmer's Guide 232. 



112 

idue of the shock should now be set regularly around the part 
first set up, as herein directed. If hemp be carefully shocked, 
it will receive little or no injury till the weather becomes warm. 
In the mean time it should be broke out as rapidly as possible. 
If the operation be completed by the middle of April, no ma- 
terial loss will be sustained. If delayed toa later period, more 
or less loss of lint will be the consequence. Cool frosty 
weather is much the best for hemp breaking. In that state 
of the weather, if the hemp is good, first rate hands, on the 
common brake, will clean two hundred pounds per day, open 
an average. Two of my best hands, during the past season, 
for every day they broke, favorable and unfavorable, averaged 
186 pounds. Two others, who are young men, and not full 
hands, averaged 144 pounds. The ordinary task for hands is 
100 pounds. Over work is paid for at the usual price of break- 
ing. 

Many efforts have been made to clean hemp by machine- 
ry, but hitherto without success. At least no method has yet 
been discovered, that answers as well as the common hand 
brake. This is so ^commonly in use as to render its descrip- 
tion unnecessary. A good description of it is given in the 
Farmer's Guide, page 223, except that the under slats, in the 
hinder part, of the brake, instead of six inches a part, should 
be from 1G to 18 inches. Those in the upper jaw should, of 
course, correspond with those in the lower one, that is should 
be so placed as to play exactly in the centre of the lower slats. 

I have now gone through with the process of the hemp cul- 
ture, from the rearing of the seed to the final completion of 
the operation, by preparing the lint for market. It has been 
my endeavor to give the practical results of my own expe- 
rience, aiming at utility rather than ornament of style. 

A few remarks upon the soils, suitable for the hemp culture, 
will close this essay. It cannot be cultivated to advantage 
on the white oak lands of Kentucky, but is well adapted to 
the rich dark, loamy soils, which predominate, in the counties 
of Mason, Bourbon, Montgomery, Clarke, Fayette, Woodford, 
Scott, &c. The rich lands, in these counties, are composed 
of a deep vegetable mould, upon a sub-stratum of clay, which 
is underlay ed by horizontal limestone rock. A considerable 
portion of the lands, in these counties, are naturally extreme- 



113 

ly well adapted to the growth of hemp ; and when they have 
been reduced, by bad husbandry, they may be restored, by lay- 
ing them down in clover, three, four or five years, according 
to the extent of deterioration which they have undergone.* 

Hemp may doubtless be cultivated to great advantage in a 
considerable portion of the rich lands, in the neighboring states 
of the west, where they do not lie so level as to be inclined to 
be wet. A dry soil is essential to a successful cultivation of 
this article. 

Good hemp land, in Mason county, will upon an average, in 
ordinary seasons, yield a ton (2240 lbs.) for every three acres. 
In favorable seasons, and upon first rate ground, I have known 
over 1200 lbs. to the acre produced. But this is a very un- 
common yield. Five acres of my last year's crop, measured 
and broke out by itself, produced 4911 pounds, equal to 982 lbs,. 
per acre, though my crop was considerably shortened by the 
dry season. 

The success with which hemp can be raised on the same 
ground, for a number of years, is very remarkable. There is 
scarcely any other crop, that will not deteriorate the soil, by 
being grown on the same ground for a succession of years,. 

The^Farmer's Guide states, upon good authority, "that thir- 
teen or fourteen successive crops were taken from the same 
field, and that the last was the best." I have no doubt of the 
correctness of this statement, because it conforms to my own 
experience. A field containing twelve and a half acres, up- 
on which nine or ten successive crops have been grown, pro- 
duced last season 9809 lbs. of hemp, equal to 789 lbs. per acre, 
though the season had become very dry sometime before the 
hemp had attained its growth. This was quite as good a yield, 
taking into consideration the unfavorableness of the season,, as 
I ever had from the same ground. 

I have never discovered the smallest diminution of crop, ex- 
cept what may be fairly ascribed to the unfavorableness ot tho 
season. It may, therefore, be laid down as a well settled prin- 



*Clover will not do well for more than two or three years in suc- 
cession, without ploughing the ground. If, therefore, ground is so 
much exhausted as to require five or six ci-ops of clover to restore it, 
after the third crop it should be ploughed in the fall and sowed in 
wheat, when a new crop of clover will be produced from the seed in 
the ground, the ensuing spring. 






114 

ciple, that hemp is not an exhausting crop. This may be ao 
counted for upon rational principles. 1. Vegetables that have 
a profusion of leaves, in proportion to their stalk and root, de- 
rive a larger proportion of their aliment from the atmosphere 
or substances mingled with it, than those differently construct- 
ed. 2. Plants exhaust a great deal more while ripening their 
seed than at any previous period of their growth. 3. All oth- 
er circumstances being equal, those crops which most com- 
pletely protect the ground from the rays of the sun, and the 
evaporating effects of the winds, must be mast favorable to the 
preservation of its fertility. In all these respects the hemp 
crop is very favorable. Even after it is cut it still covers the 
ground until it is put in rick. And being again spread on the 
game ground during 1 the winter, it saves the soil from the dete- 
riorating effects of stock running upon it. If we add to all 
these advantages that it receives from the hemp all the leaves, 
blossom?, pollen, imperfect seed, &-c, which annually serves 
as a dressing of manure, we shall not be surprised that hemp 
should have little or no tendency to deteriorate the soil. 



CULTIVATION OF TOBACCO. 

The first step in the process of tobacco culture is to make 
provision for an abundant supply of plants. Tobacco seed are 
very small, and the plants, when they spring from the ground, 
grow very slowly, and would-soon be smothered by weeds if not 
carefully guarded against. The places selected for plant beds, 
should be such as would not be likely to produce many weeds. 
New ground or that which has been long set in grass, would 
be best for this purpose. To guard still further against weeds, 
and to ensure a thrifty growth of plants, it is essential that 
the place in which the seed are to be sown, should be burnt. 
A light burning with straw or other light material will not be 
sufficient. A good coat of brush laid upon the ground inten- 
ded to be used for a plant bed, and arranged so closely as to 
make it burn readily, serves best for the purpose. Care must 
be taken also, before laying on the brush, to take all trash from 
the ground, so that the heat may readily destroy the seeds of 
any weeds which may have been deposited there. New ground 
is always to be preferred for plant beds, and brush as the ma- 
terial for burning the ground. But if the tobacco planter have 
no new ground, then he must substitute grass land in its stead, 
and this should be well burned by having a range of logs 
(those which are seasoned are best) laid along one edge of the 
ground, intended for plant bed, and heaped up sufficiently to 
make them burn readily. These must be set on fire, and af- 
ter burning the ground which they cover sufficiently, they 
must be moved by means of hooks, to the adjacent ground not 
yet burnt ; and so on, in succession, until the entire space, inten- 



116 

ded for a plant bed is burnt. If one set of logs is not suffi- 
cient to burn a space as large as will be necessary, others must 
be added so as to enlarge the space, or they may be burnt at 
different places as may be most convenient. 

Where sed ground is intended to be used, it would be advan- 
tageous to have the sod lightly skinned off with sharp hoes, 
before the space is burnt over. 

After the ground is burnt it must stand sufficiently long to 
cool, and then the ashes should be carefully removed. The 
ground should now be dug up with hoes, to the depth of two 
or three inches, and so as to pulverize it as much as possible, 
and should be well raked with an iron tooth rake, so as to break 
up the soil into the most minute parts. It will now be ready 
for sowing the seed. It is important that this operation should 
be as regular as possible, and care should be taken to put the 
proper quantity of seed upon the ground. If sowed too thick, 
the plants will be,so much crowded as to injure their growth. 
If sowed too thin, a deficiency of plants may be the consequence. 
A common silver table spoonful of seed will be sufficient for 
fifty square yards. More than that quantity should not be 
sowed on that space of ground. But if the ground prepared 
be abundant, the plants would grow more thrifty by sowing a 
spoonful of seed on seventy or eighty square yards. The seed 
allotted for a particular bed should be put into a vessel half 
filled with fine mould or earth, and stirred so thoroughly as to 
cause the seed to be equally distributed in all parts. It should 
now be separated into two equal divisions. And the plant bed 
having been divided into convenient lands for sowing, one por- 
tion should be sowed as equally as possible in one direction, 
and the other portion in the same bed, in the opposite direction. 
The plant bed should now be well raked with an iron tooth 
rake, both ways, and should then be well trodden by the feet 
of men or boys, so as to render the loose soil firm and compact. 
The bed should be thinly covered over with brush to keep it 
moist and to protect the plants from frost. Plant beds should be 
prepared and sown as early in February as the weather will 
admit ; though it will be in good time if sown any time in that 
month. 

Tobacco requires a rich soil, and that which is new or near- 
ly so, answers best. Next to ground which has been recentlv 






117 

cleared, lands which have been long in grass, especially if pas- 
lured by sheep, answers best for tobacco. In preparing 
ground for tobacco, great care should be taken to plough it 
deep, and pulverize it completely. Grass land intended for to- 
bacco, should always be ploughed the previous fall. And it 
is better that all kinds of land intended for that purpose, should 
be ploughed in time to have the benefit of the previous winter 
frosts. It should be kept light and free from weeds, by repeat- 
ed ploughings, till near the time of planting. It should then 
be laid off into ridges, by a single horse plough, (to prevent 
the ridges from being trodden by the off horse) from three to 
three and a half feet from centre to centre, according to 
the kind of tobacco which is intended to be planted. The 
ground should be crossed at the same distance, by a shovel 
plough or one with a double mould board. The ground will 
now be in a condition, requiring nothing more to be done to 
prepare for the planting, but to cut off the centre of the square 
or ridge with a broad hoe. This last operation should be per- 
formed when the plants are of sufficient size for setting, and 
should be made only so many at a time as there will be plants 
to fill the first season that happens. Plants can only be set af- 
ter a rain, and much care should be taken in this operation, 
for if plants are well set they will grow quickly, but if badly 
set they will be kept back some time, and many hills will re- 
quire to be re-planted. This will cause much additional labor 
and render the crop irregular as to the time of ripening. When 
the crop is planted its cultivation must be carefully attended 
to. The first thing to be done is to see that the cut worms do 
not destroy the young plants. These must be sought after and 
destroyed. The plants must be kept free from weeds. In 
this operation both the plough and hoe should be usell until 
the plants become too large to use the former without break- 
ing the leaves. During the last ploughing, tobacco should be 
ploughed only during the heat of the day, when the leaveB 
will have tvilted and will net easily break. 

Tobacco is very subject to be injured by the horn worm. 
This insect is very destructive, and if not destroyed will ruin 
the crop. The utmost care is, therefore, required from an 
early period of its growth, to save the tobaceo crop. Frjm 
the time the horn worm makes its appearance, the crop should 






118 

be gone over once a week till it is cut. Topping and priming 
are next to be attended to. The latter consists in breaking off 
the leaves next to the ground , which, to the number of four 
or five, are of no value. The number of leaves to which to- 
bacco should be topped, varies according to the kind of tobac- 
co raised, and the season of topping. The first topping will 
always admit of a greater number of leaves being left; and, 
in proportion as the season advances, fewer leaves should be 
left. The heavier kinds of tobacco are generally topped early 
in the season, to twelve leaves, then to ten, and still later to 
eight. The lighter kinds of tobacco are topped to a greater 
number of leaves. The above rule is only applicable to a rich 
soil. If the soil is light, the topping should be regulated 
accordingly, and fewer leaves left.* 

Suckering is a much more tedious operation. Every plant 
requires to be twice suckered before it is ready for cutting. 
The first suckers are of quick growth, and should be removed 
before they become large, otherwise they will not only injure 
the growth of the plants, but will sometimes break off the 
leaves in removing them. 

Tobacco is usually planted from the middle o( May to the 
last of June. And the cutting season commonly commences 
about the middle of August, and is rarely finished until late 
in September. Between the planting and cutting of tobacco, 
the labor of attending to it is light, but very tedious. It re- 
quires more hands than any other crop, for the same number 
of acres; but weak hands and children can assist and do much 
of the work. When it begins to ripen, stouter hands are re- 
quired, though children may still aid in the subsequent opera- 
tions. A little practice will enable the planter to distinguish, 
very readily, the ripe from the green plants. At the first cut- 
ting the former must be selected and cut, leaving the others to 
become riper. When tobacco is ripe the leaves become spot- 
ted, with a greenish yellow color, and the leaves are so thick 
and ridged that by folding and pressing gently between the 
thumb and finger, they will break or crack. But a little ex- 
perience will enable the planter to determine which plants are 



*Light tobacco, for segar wrappers, such as Roundleaf, Burleigh, 
nnd ^ummerville, should be planted three by two feet, and topped to 
sixteen or eighteen leaves. 



119 

ripe by sight alone. Tobacco must be split while standing; 
and such hands as can readily distinguish between the ripe and 
green plants, should be employed in the splitting process The 
most convenient knife for splitting tobacco is in form some- 
what like a broad chisel, except that the blade should be very 
thin. It should be three and a half inches wide, and of the 
same length, having attached to it a thin spear or shank, to be 
inserted in a handle about a foot long, having a cross piece on 
the top, to be held by the hand. After the spear is inserted 
in the handle, the latter should be shaved flat on two sides, to 
prevent the end of the handle next the spear from striking 
against the top of the tobacco stalk as the knife is run down. 
With this instrument a skilful operator can split the standing 
plants with great rapidity. They should not be split nearer to 
the ground than six inches. The cutter may follow immedi- 
ately after the splitter, or at any convenient time afterwards. 
A common hemp hook is the best instrument for cutting tobac- 
co. The cutting season is a critical time for the tobacco crop. 
It is subject to a variety of casualties; and without particular 
care, is liable to sustain great and irreparable injury. It is 
subject to be bruised in handling, to be sun burned, and to be 
greatly injured by heating if suffered to lie too long in large 
heaps. Each of these will most materially injure the crop, 
and they must all be guarded against with the utmost vigilance. 
The first is the most difficult to be guarded against, when to- 
bacco is cut in very warm weather. After it is cut, it must 
lie long enough to fall or wilt, so as to become sufficiently pli- 
ant to handle without breaking or bruising the leaves. The 
hotter the weather the more difficult it is to accomplish this 
object without exposing the plants to the deteriorating effects 
of being sun burned. It is surprising how quickly this takes 
place, when tobacco is exposed to the meridian rays of the sun, 
in the month of August, or early in September. The parts of 
the leaves which are sun burned turn white and soon become 
dry and crisp; and when cured, assume a green color. The 
parts thus affected are completely ruined, having lost all the 
qualities of good tobacco. To guard against this casualty, 
when tobacco is cut early in the season, the operation should 
be performed in the morning or so late in the evening that the 
sun will not have power enough to injure it. Cutting, both in 



120 

the morning and evening, may be practised- as convenience 
may dictate, and may be managed as follows. The planter 
may commence cutting in the morning, taking care to cut only 
so much as he can secure before the sun has acquired sufficient 
power to injure it. When the cutting is completed and the 
plants have fallen sufficiently, he should commence piling it in 
heaps with the buts towards the sun, taking care to handle the 
plants gently, holding them by the buts, and avoiding any 
pressure upon the leaves. By handling them thus, and laying 
them as lightly as possible in heaps, this process may be per- 
formed before the tobacco has completely fallen. The heaping 
should always commence with the plants first cut, so that they 
may, as nearly as practicable, be exposed to the sun's rays an 
equal portion of time, or in equal degree, and should so pro- 
gress till the whole is heaped. The stems of the tobacco are 
the last parts that wilt. Being large and ridged, these require 
more sun to make them fall, and hence the necessity of placing 
the buts towards the sun when heaping tobacco. Being thus 
placed, the stems continue to be affected by the sun, while the 
plants are lying in heaps. The heaping of tobacco in some 
degree protects it from being sun burned, but the uncovered 
leaves are, of course, unprotected. Hence the necessity of 
hauling the tobacco to the place of hanging it as soon as possi- 
ble, after it has fallen sufficiently to admit of this being done 
without bruising or breaking off the leaves. Sleds are the 
most convenient vehicles for transporting tobacco to the scaf- 
fold or house where it is to be hung, if near at hand. These 
should have smooth plank on the bottom, to prevent the leaves 
of the tobacco from being torn or bruised. There should be no 
standards in the sleds, and the tobacco should be laid on in two 
courses, the tails lapped and buts out on each side. When un- 
loaded, the buts should all lie towards the sun, unless the hang- 
ing is performed in the shade of a house or trees. These pre- 
cautions are all for the purpose of preventing the tobacco from 
being sun burned. If the cutting take place late in the season, 
or when the weather is cool, they will not be necessary. 

Planters who are largely engaged in the culture of tobacco, 
will be under the necessity of raising it at a considerable dis- 
tance from the place of housing it. In that case sleds will 
not be convenient for transporting it, and it would be a much 



121 

better plan to have a wagon coupled so as to hold a very long 
body, and sufficiently high to hang the tobacco, after being put 
on sticks, across the body. The sticks should be filled with the 
appropriate number of plants, in the field where it grew, and 
put at once into the wagon, pressing them as close together as 
possible without bruising the leaves. This will protect the 
plants from becoming sun burned, and when the wagon arrives 
at the place of housing it, the tobacco may, at once, be transfer- 
red to the place where it is to be cured It would be most con- 
venient to have two wagons, so that one may be filled in the 
field while the other is hauling and discharging its load, and re- 
turning. So, also, if there be hands enough, the smaller ones 
may be heaping the tobacco, while others are engaged in put- 
ting it on sticks, and conveying it to the place of housing it. 
If the tobacco house be so constructed as to admit the wagons 
to pass through the centre, additional facilities will be furnish- 
ed for transferring the tobacco to the place where it is to be 
cured. 

Tobacco plants may be split, during the heat of the- day, 
without injury. It is only liable to be sun burned after it is 
cut. And hence the splitting process may progress, while pari 
of the hands arecn°'ao-ecl in hanging that which was cut in the 
morning. When the afternoon has so for progressed that to- 
bacco may safely be cut without the risk of sun burning, (which 
is usually about four o'clock in August, and somewhat earlier 
in September,) the cutting process should commence, and be 
completed as soon as possible, so as to give time for the plants 
to fall sufficiently to be handled the same evening, or the next 
day, before the sun has attained sufficient power to injure 
them. The first cutting of the afternoon, in the early part 
of the season, can usually be hauled and hung the same eve- 
ning. That part of it which has not fallen sufficiently to be 
handled without bruising or breaking^, should be suffered to lie 
in the field, without heaping, till the next day. 

It is usual, when there is not time to hang all the tobacco, 
during the same evening it is cut, to let a part of it lie over 
till morning, to be hung while the dew is drying off that in the 
field. This may be done to advantage if hauled on sleds, pro- 
vided care be taken to prevent it from heating during the 

night. If suffered to lie in large heaps, it will be greatlv in- 

L* 



1 



122 

jured in the course of one night. To guard against this cas- 
ualty, it should be spread in long rows not more than three or 
four plants deep, when the weather is very warm. In cool 
weather the danger of heating is not so great. A little expe- 
rience will teach the tobacco planter to guard against the casu- 
alty of which I have been speaking. It is very important that 
this should be done, as it is completely ruinous to so much of 
the tobacco as may become heated to a high degree, as it will 
be if suffered to lie in large heaps over night. 

There are two modes of treating tobacco when it is cut, one 
is to hang it on scaffolds, exposed to the weather; the other is 
to hang it at once in suitable houses. 

The former method must, of necessity, be resorted to where 
there is a scarcity of house room. By hanging sometime on 
a scaffold, the tobacco commences curing and can be stow- 
ed much closer in houses than it can be, with safety, when 
first cut. But it is subject to serious disadvantages. Those 
parts which are exposed to the sun are liable to be sun burned, 
and much of it may, therefore, be injured on the scaffold. An- 
other injury, and a most material one, is, that if suffered to re- 
imin on the scaffold till the leaves begin to cure, they are lia- 
ble to be injured by the dews which fall every night; and still 
imre by a rain, if one should happen to fall. If the 
tobacco is housed, from the scaffold, before it begins to cure, hot 
much is gained in poi' t of room, when stowed in the tobacco 
house. If suffered to hang on the scaffold till partly cured, it 
may be greatly injured by rains and dews. 

The safest way, therefore, is to put it in houses or under 
sheds, as soon as it is cut. But here again care must be ta- 
ken to avoid another casualty, that of being house burned. It 
is stated in the Farmer's Guide, page 265, that if it is inten- 
ded "to cure by fire, the tobacco is carried immediately from 
the field to the house, hung on sticks, as before described, and 
these sticks crowded as close together on the tier as they can 
possibly be, so as to exclude all air from the tobacco. It re- 
mains in this situation until the leaves of the plants become 
yellow, or of the color of hickory leaves just before they* fall. 
This will generally happen in four or five days, when the 
sticks must be spread and placed at the proper distances in the 
house.'' There never was a greater error than that contain- 



123 

ed in the above extract. Tobacco thus housed r would be com- 
pletely ruined long before the five days should have elapsed. 
If intended to be cured without fire, the house should be as open 
as possible, for the free admission of air. The sticks on which 
the tobacco is hung should be placed from eight to twelve inch- 
es apart, according to the size of the tobacco, so that the air 
could circulate freely between the ranges of sticks. It should 
be continued in this open order until the tobacco is partiallv 
cured, when it may be re-hung in much closer order, so as to 
make room for the later cutting. If hung in open sheds, with 
tight roofs, so much the better, so that the rain is prevented 
from beating in on the tobacco, which may be done by setting 
up fence rails or rough plank against the open sides of the 
shed. 

If intended to be cured by fire, the house should be render- 
ed as tight as possible, in all parts, except the roof, through 
which the smoke must escape. But instead of being crowded 
together, as recommended in the extract given above, it 
should have space enough to prevent the plants on the 
different sticks from pressing hard against each other, after 
the tobacco has completely fallen. Instead of suffering the 
tobacco to hang four or five days before fire is put under it, the 
house should be filled as soon as possible, and fire put under 
it immediately, to prevent the danger of house burning. For 
the first few days the fire should be moderate, till the edges of 
the leaves turn of a yellow color. The fires should then be 
gradually raised and the house kept sufficiently warm to Cure 
the tobacco in a {ew days. In making kite foot tobacco, the 
rule is, I believe, that the tobacco, stalk and all, must be cured 
in forty-eight hours from the time the fires are raised, which, 
as I have already remarked, must be when the leaves begin to 
turn yellow around their edges. After thus commencing to 
change color the entire leaf very soon assumes a beautiful yel- 
low hue, and the object is to cure it before it turns to a nutmeg 
brown. If the curing is not very speedy, it will, or a great 
part of it, change to the latter color before the operation is 
completed. 

The next thing to be done, after the tobacco is housed and 
cured, is stripping. This must be delayed till the stem as 
well as the leaf of the tobacco is thoroughly cured. Stripping 



124 

can only be performed when tobacco is in such high case as to 
render the stems perfectly pliable, or at least such a portion 
of them as will supply a sufficient quantity of tying leaves. 
that is, leaves to tie the tobacco in hands. To perform this 
operation neatly, the stem of the leaf with which the hand is 
tied should be soft and pliant. As seasons for stripping are 
precarious, whenever tobacco, after being sufficiently cured, 
comes into case, a quantity for future stripping should be ta- 
ken down, and packed in close bulk, with the tails in the cen- 
tre and the buts of the stalks out. This bulk should be enclo- 
sed by the walls of the house on two or three sides, and plank 
on the other, and should be well stuffed all around between the 
enclosure and buts, with straw, so as to exclude the air. Thus 
packed away, tobacco wiU'remain in case for a longtime, but 
care must be taken not to pack it down when in too damp or- 
der, otherwise it will go through a heat, and be greatly injured, 
unless it be stripped out in the course of a few days. If put 
down in proper order, it may be stripped out at leisure, provi- 
ded it is not packed in bulk before the weather has become 
cool, say November or December. When stripped and tied in 
hands it must be put in bulk, lapping the tails in the middle 
and leaving the heads all on the outside of the bulk, so that they 
can become thoroughly dry. If not in too high order when 
put in bulk, as above directed, it may be suffered to remain 
till February, when it should be hung on sticks, the hands as 
close as they can be conveniently placed to each other without 
pressing them together, and hung in the tobacco house, leav- 
ing the sticks so far apart as to admit the air to circulate be- 
tween them. In this situation the tobacco will become thor- 
oughlv dry in a few days. It must be left hanodncr until a rain 
shall again bring it incase. It will be observed that the leaf, in 
contradistinction to the stem, will first come in case, whilst the 
stem will be found still dry and brittle. This is precisely the 
order in which tobacco should be, when it is to be finally bulk- 
ed down for market or prising in hogsheads. 

It should now be put down in a very large bulk, which may 
include the planter's entire crop. The number of courses 
may be six, eight, or any larger number, and the whole should 
be enclosed by the walls of the house and plank, and closely 
surrounded and covered with soft straw, so as perfectly to ex- 



125 

elude the air. In this condition it may be kept for any leno-th 
of time, and will be ready at all times for hauling to market in 
the hand or prising. One precaution only will be necessary. 
When the cover of the bulk is taken off for the purpose of ta- 
king out a part of the tobacco for prising or sale, the entire 
course or courses, on the top, should be taken off smoothly, 
and the cover carefully replaced. This is necessary to prevent 
the top of the bulk from becoming too dry. When prising in 
the summer, some elder bushes may be spread over the bulk 
to keep the tobacco damp. Tobacco prepared as herein di- 
rected, may be kept any number of years in bulk, or may be 
transferred to hogsheads and kept for any length of time, not 
only without injury, but will constantly improve by age. 

It should be remarked, that to make tobacco of a very supe- 
rior quality, great care should be taken when the stripping pro- 
cess is going on, to separate all the injured or defective leaves 
from the prime tobacco. To this end every plant should pass 
through the hands of a good judge of tobacco, who should cull 
out all the injured and defective leaves, which should be kept 
and sold separately. The balance of the leaves may be strip- 
ped and tied by small hands, who are not skilled in the quality 
of tobacco. As many persons should be employed in culling 
as may be necessary to furnish employment to all the lesa 
skillful hands. Sometimes, especially in kite foot tobacco,, 
three different qualities should be made. 

I have now gone through the entire process of tobac- 
co culture, in which I have endeavored to include every 
thing which can be of practical use to the tobacco plan- 
ter; and have gone as much into detail as will enable him, 
with a little practice and the exercise of a sound judgment, to 
understand and apply the whole process to the best ad- 
vantage. 

It is usual to plant tobacco, on our rich Kentucky 
soil, for several years in succession, on the same ground. 
Tobacco is an exhausting crop, and ought not, too frequent- 
ly, to be planted on the same ground. Experience will 
soon show when the crop should be changed. When it be- 
comes necessary to do so, tobacco should be followed by 
a wheat crop, and the wheat sowed thickly with clover 
the following spring. The clover crop should be continued 



126 

for at least two or three years, and then should have a coat 
of manure in the fall, and be ploughed in, and suffered to 
lie till spring, when it would again be in good condition for 
tobacco. 



SYSTEM OF AGRICULTURE ADAPTED TO KENTUCKY.* 

In adopting" a system of agriculture, best suited to the cir- 
cumstances of our State, regard must be had to its variety of 
soil and climate. The climate of Kentucky extends from thir- 
ty-six and a half to thirty nine degrees of north latitude. So 
far as regards climate every part of the State is well adapt- 
ed to the culture of Indian corn; but wheat can be grown to 
advantage only in the more northern parts. Indeed, even in 
those parts best adapted to wheat, this useful grain, except for 
our own immediate supply, is not found to be a very profitable 
crop. The new States to the north and west, in the cheap- 
ness "of their Jiands, and better adaptation to wheat from cli- 
mate and soil, will always hare great advantages over our 
State, in supplying the New Orleans market. The culture of 
that article, to any considerable extent in Kentucky, will, in the 
general, be found not to be useful or advantageous, and ought, 
except to the extent of supplying our own wants, to be left to 
such of our farmers as may occupy a soil not adapted to hemp 
and tobacco. Besides the uncertainty of the wheat crop in the 
rich vegetable soils of Kentucky,! it is very exhausting, and 
requires much attention to manuring and grassing of land to 
prevent its deterioration. 

Barley is better adapted to our soil and climate, is not so ex- 



*Premiums were awarded in favor of this essay and the next suc- 
ceeding, by the Kentucky Agricultural Society, at the annual meet- 
ing in Frankfort, January, 1842." 

tLiebig says, that soils particularly rich in humus are not favora- 
ble to the growth of wheat. — Organic Chemistry, 197-8. 



128 

hausting, and may, in those parts of the state where there is a 
demand for it, be cultivated to more advantage than wheat. 

In the rich vegetable soils of Kentucky, which are well 
adapted to the growth of hemp and tobacco, these crops, to- 
gether with the necessary grains for feeding stock, such as 
corn, rye and oats, and the appropriate vegetables for the same 
purpose, should be the principal objects of culture. 

Tobacco can be grown to advantage in every part of the 
state where the soil is suitable, but it is more peculiarly adapt- 
ted to the Green River country, where the climate is better 
suited to the production of a first rate article. 

A system of agriculture best suited to our circumstances, 
whilst it should embrace every variety of product, to which 
our soil and climate is adapted, should be so diversified as to 
appropriate lands of various qualities and lying in various lati- 
tudes, to the production of those articles which are best adap- 
ed to the nature of the soil, and most suitable to the surround- 
ing circumstances. 

Thus lands lying near a large town or city, where the fa- 
cilities for obtaining manure are very great, may be advan- 
tageously applied to the production of such articles as will 
serve for the consumption of the place. 

By directing our efforts to the production of as great a vari- 
ety of articles as the nature of our soil and climate and other 
circumstances will justify, we shall obtain all the advantages 
resulting from a division of labor, and, at the same time, guard 
a gainst the consequences of over production. 

If the whole energies of our State were directed to the 
culture of tobacco, there would not only be a misapplication 
of labor, in attempting to produce that article in lands un- 
suited to the crop, but there would be an over production, and, 
consequently, a considerable diminution of price. If a like ef- 
fort should be made to extend the culture of hemp, a similar 
consequence would result; and so in relation to any other agri- 
cultural product. Still greater evils would result if we were 
to direct all our efforts to the raising of live stock. The con- 
sequence would not only be the usual result of a supply ex- 
ceeding the demand, but there would be a surplus left on hand 
which would have to be fed and sustained in the hope of &fu- 
ture demand at some distant but uncertain period. 



129 

But although our agricultural efforts should be directed to 
as great a variety of products as circumstances will admit of, 
vet the same individual ought not to attempt the culture of 
too great a number of articles. In general farmers will suc- 
ceed better by directing their main efforts to some one crop 
as an article for sale, and such others as are necessary to feed 
their stock and furnish subsistence for their families. 

In one particular our svstem of agriculture should be uni- 
form. Whatever may be the nature of the crops we cultivate, 
the utmost care should be taken so to cultivate our lands as 
never to suffer them to become less fertile. 

Although there has been considerable improvement in our 
system of agriculture, within the last twenty years, yet there 
can be no doubt we are still far behind the improvements of 
the age, in the highly useful science of agriculture. 

The extreme natural fertility of our best lands i. our 

early settlers to fall into the error, that it would be impossible to 
exhaust them. The great depth of the vegetable mould and a 
most excellent subsoil, founded upon limestone rock, very nat- 
urally induced the opinion that it was inexhaustible. Expe- 
rience has shown the fallacy of this idea, but it is diyicult, even 
at this day, to make the generality of farmers sensible of the 
extent of deterioration, which much cf our naturally rich soil 
has already undergone; and still more difficult to convince them 
of the great advantages, which would result from such a change 
of our system of husbandry as will restore our exhausted 
to its original state of fertility. 

A continued course of deterioration must, ultimately, termi- 
nate in such a reduction of soil as will render the product of 
less value than the labor necessary to bring it to maturity. 
Such a course of cultivation not only diminishes the profit of 
the farmer, each succeeding year, until his profit is reduced to 
nothing, but his capital, vested in land, will be almost entirely 
sunk. 

The least reflection will satisfy any one of the disadvanta- 
ges of such a system. It requires no more to cultivate an 
acre of ground, producing sixty bushels of corn, than would be 
required to cultivate the same acre, after it has been so reduced 
in fertility as to produce only thirty bushels. Now if the agri- 
culturist, who raises thirtv bushels of corn per acre, is barelv 

M 



130 

paid for the labor expended in raising it, it is evident that the 
additional thirty bushels, which it would have produced if the 
soil had not been suffered to diminish in fertility, would have 
been clear gain. 

The same would be equally true of hemp, tobacco, and ev- 
ery other crop, except the small additional labor of harvesting 
the increased crop and preparing it for market, after it has been 
brought to maturity. 

As land can be much more easily kept in good heart and 
fertile condition than it can be restored after it has been dete- 
riorated, a discreet farmer will always resort to the easier 
method, especially as it is by far the most profitable one. 

If we take from land all or nearly all that it produces, and 
restore nothing, we gradually abstract from it those nourish- 
ing principles, which are essential to the growth of plants; 
and when the work of destruction has been carried to a cer- 
tain extent, there will no longer remain in the soil a sufficient 
quantity of nourishing ingredients to produce a crop sufficient 
to pay for its cultivation. If a beneficent Providence had not 
made provision for a supply, to a considerable extent, of those 
elementary principles which constitute, in various states of 
combination, the appropriate food of plants, over and above 
what is furnished by the soil, our best lands, under a bad state 
of cultivation, would long since have been reduced to a state 
of complete sterility. In a state of nature every thing is re- 
stored "to the soil, which is drawn from it by the growth of 
plants, and hence it continually increases in fertility. To pre- 
serve the fertility of land, while in a state of cultivation, it is 
only necessary to jestore to the soil such a proportion of the 
fertilizing ingredients as will, together with those furnished 
from the atmosphere, be equivalent to the sum of those drawn 
from the soil by the growing crops. 

The office of the soil is, "1. To receive and digest the food 

designed for the growing plant. 2. To serve as a medium 

for conveying to the spongiolets or mouths of the plants the 

water holding in solution the different substances, which pass 

into and nourish them; and, 3. To serve as a basis for fixing 

the roots of the plants, and maintaining them in an upright 
position."* 

♦Farmer's Companion, p. 50. 



i3i 

The following are the most important elementary princi- 
ples, which, in various states of combination, enter into the 
composition of vegetable matter, and furnish the appropriate 
food for growing plants; oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen and car- 
bon, together with a small portion of the alkalies and oxydes 
of various metals. So far as these elementary principles are 
supplied from other sources than the soil, in which crops are 
grown, the waste, occasioned by their removal, is replenished. 
Plants possess the power of decomposing water,*' and appro- 
priating its elements by assimilation as food; and as water is 
composed of hydrogen and oxygen, it follows that two of thj 
foregoing elements are derived, in large quantities, from the 
atmosphere through the medium of rain, snow and dews. 

Liebig, in various parts of his able work on organic chem- 
istry, has shown, that plants derive from the atmosphere, by 
the absorbing power of their leaves, a large and regular supply 
of carbon in the form of carbonic acid. He adds "that during 
the heat of summer, a plant derives its carbon exclusively 

from the atmosphere."! 

Here, then, we have the source whence is derived, in large 

quantities, three of the principal elements, which, in various 
states of combination, assist in furnishing food for growing 
crops. Nitrogen is known to be essential to the healthy and 
vigorous growth of plants. This element exists in large quan- 
tities in all animal substances, and also to a considerable ex- 
tent in decaying vegetable matters, but much of it escapes, in 
the form of ammonia, during the process of decomposition. — 
It was difficult, until recently, to account for the manner in 
which the loss (sustained by soils while in cultivation) of this 
indispensable ingredient of fertility, is replenished. Liebig 
has shown, in a very satisfactory manner, that ammonia (com- 
posed of three parts, by weight, of hydrogen, and 14 parts 
nitrogen) is combined with rain water and snow in small quan- 
tities, and hence the loss of nitrogen, sustained by the removal 
of crops from the soil on which they grew, is, in a limited de- 
gree, restored by the falling of rain and snow. Thus nitro- 
gen, to some extent, is also supplied by the atmosphere to 
growing plants ; but as this supply is not so abundant as that 

*Liebig's Organic Chemistry, 122. 

fLiebig's Organic Chemistry, p. 106. See also p. 54 and 55. 



132 

of the other elements, the utmost care should be used by the 
cultivators of the soil to keep their lands well supplied with 
this indispensable ingredient of fertility, by taking nothing 
from the land but what is necessary ; by restoring, in the form 
of manure, every thing that can be restored; and by cultivating 
clover and other ameliorating crops, which take but little from 
the soil while they add to it all the fertilizing ingredients 
which they derive from the atmosphere, When these circum- 
stances are duly considered we may readily account for the 
length of time during which a soil may be cultivated in the worst 
possible manner, without entirely exhausting it. A continual 
effort is made by nature to replenish the earth with those fer- 
tilizing ingredients, which have been inconsiderately wasted 
by the improvidence of man, without any effectual effort on 
his part to restore even the small proportion of those ingredi- 
ents which would furnish a full supply of food for his future 

crops. 

When a beneficent Providence has done so much towards 

restoring the elementary principles, constituting the food of 
plants, which to a certain extent must be consumed by the 
growing crops, a strong encouragement is held out to the in- 
dustrious farmer to do his part also. In looking around he be- 
holds every where the evidence that when all is restored to 
the earth, which grew upon it, a continued increase of fertility 
results. This is a sure indication that a beneficent Providence 
intended that the earth should never become sterile by cultiva- 
tion — it plainly points out to man that he too should restore to 
the soil that portion of its" products for which he has no use. 
He should continually bear in mind that the aids, provided by 
a bountiful Creator, were only intended to supply the unavoid- 
able loss of nourishing ingredients or food for plants, occasioned 
by the necessity of taking from the soil a portion of the grow- 
ing crops for consumption, and which cannot be fully restored. 
While, therefore, the prudent farmer may confidently rely 
upon these aids, in preserving the fertility of his soil, he will 
recollect that he must also do his part. He may take for con- 
sumption the fruits of the earth for both man and beast, and 
yet give back to it enough to keep up its original fertility, by 
restoring only a reasonable proportion of that part of its pro- 
duct which remains after consuming all that is of any value fo? 
food for himself and provender for his stock, 



133 

Next to oxygen, hydrogen, carbon and nitrogen; the alkalies, 
potash and soda, constitute the most important ingredients, in 
the food of plants. These were formerly considered as simple 
substances, but were ascertained by Sir Humphrey Davy, to 
be metallic basis, combined with oxygen. They are, therefore, 
real oxides. They are capable of combining with a great 
variety of substances; and, in various states of combination, 
form an indispensable food for plants of almost every kind. — 
Hence if these substances were entirely extracted from the 
earth, it could no longer produce a vigorous growth of those 
plants, which require a supply of these alkalies as a part of 

their food. 

Liebig has shown, that these alkalies exist in a state ofcom- 
. . •. 

bination with water, in small proportions, and that where they 

have been extracted from the soil by growing plants, they may 
be restored by irrigation, and by rain.* Sea-water also con- 
tains these alkalies in small quantities, and Liebig informs us 
that "the roots of plants are constantly engaged in collecting 
from the rain those alkalies, which formed part of the sea- 
water, and also those of the water of springs, which penetrates 
the soil.'' 1 That, "without alkalies and alkaline bases mott 
plants could not exist."! 

The alkaline earths, lime, and magnesia, are necessary to 
the vigorous growth of some of the most valuable agricultural 
products. These earths exist in great abundance^ in some 
soils, but in others are very deficient, particularly in lime. 
This deficiency is, in some degree, supplied from the atmos- 
phere. Liebig informs us, that "by the continual evaporation 
of the sea, its salts are spread over the whole face of the earth ; 
and being subsequently carried down by the rain, furnish to 
vegetation those salts necessary to its existence. This is 
the origin of the salts found in the ashes of plants, in those cases 
where the soil could not have yielded them."| Besides a small 
quantity of sulphate of lime, there is contained in sea-water, 
according to Liebig, 1.12400 of its weight of carbonate of lime. 

*Liebig's organic chemistry 159. 160. 167. 
tSee further on this subject, p. 196 to 200. 
^Liebig's organic chemistry, 166. 

According to Marcet, sea-water contains in 1000 parts: 

26.660 chloride of sodium. 4.660 sulphate of soda. 

1.232 chloride of Potassium. 5.152 chloride of magnesium, 

1.5 sulphate of lime. 

M* 



134 

Thus it is seen we are indebted to the atmosphere not only 
for oxygen, hydrogen, carbon, and nitrogen, but also for potash, 
soda, and the alkaline earths — lime and magnesia. The im- 
portance of these will be further noticed, when I come to re- 
mark upon manures. 

The means of preserving the fertility of the soil, and reno- 
vating that which has been partially exhausted are, 

1. A judicious rotation of crops. 

2. The saving and applying of manures. 

3. A liberal cultivation of such crops as receive their chief 
nourishment from the atmosphere. 

4. Good tillage. 

As a distinct premium has been offered for the best essay on 
the rotation of crops, best suited to Kentucky, I do not propose, 
in this essay, to say any thing on that branch of the subject. 

The saving and applying ol manures is very important to a 
good system of husbandry. And great care should be taken 
to preserve so much of the product of the farm, as is left un- 
consumed byjnan and beast, in suitable situations, to be used, 
at the proper time, for that purpose. 

The necessity for suitable application of manure, to culti- 
vated lands, is very evident, when we reflect, that some of the 
most important ingredients, which serve as food for plants, 
such as nitrogen, potash and soda, are furnished but sparingly 
from the atmosphere. These ingredients are all found in ma- 
nures; and by properly saving and applying them, the farmer 
is enabled to make up the deficiency of the supply from the 
atmosphere. Manures contain also other useful ingredients^ 
which, perhaps, can be derived from no other source. 

A question of -great importance, and one which seems not 
yet to be fully settled, is what is the best manner of preserving 
manure till the proper period for applying it to the land in cul- 
tivation, and in what condition should it be applied, whether 
after complete decomposition has taken place, or when only 
partially decomposed, or in the state in which it came from the 
earth? Liebig, in his able work on organic chemistry, in its 
application to agriculture and Physiology, has shown that am- 
monia is a very important ingredient, in the nourishment of 
all agricultural products. 

D.iring the decomposition of manures, a large quantity of 



135 

ammonia is formed, but being a gaseous substance the whole 
passes off, and is entirely lost. If, therefore, long manure is 
exposed in heaps to the effects of heat and moisture, fermenta" 
tion ensues, and the consequent formation of ammonia, which 
passes off in the form of gas, and nothing is left, as he informs 
us, but "a mere carbonacious residue of decayed plants.*' An 
idea of the loss sustained by manure, exposed to heat and 
moisture, may be formed from the fact, stated by Liebig, "that 
with every pound of ammonia, which escapes, a loss of sixty 
pounds of corn (wheat) is sustained." To prevent this loss 
Liebio- recommends "that the floors of our stables, from time to 
time, be. strewed with common gypsum, (sulphate of lime,) the 
ammonia (he says) enters into combination with the sulphuric 
acid, and the carbonic acid with the lime, forming compounds 
which are not volatile, and consequently destitute of smell."* 

Growing plants receive large supplies of oxygen and hydro- 
gen (the component parts of water) from rains and dews. 
They are also supplied abundantly with carijon, in the form of 
carbonic acid, by means of the absorbing power of their leaves 
But a full supply of nitrogen, and the alkalies is likewise es- 
sential to their vigorous growth. These are more sparingly 
supplied from the atmosphere, and hence the importance of 
additional supplies. Putrescent manures abound in nitrogen, 
but this important element of vegetable food, during the process 
of putrefiction, nearly all escapes (if no measures are taken to 
fix it) in the form of ammonia. 

Liebig has shown, that this may be done by a proper appli- 
cation of gypsum to stable manure, before the fomenting 
process commences.! A similar application of gypsum to 
manure, saved in feeding pens, cow yards, &c, would, no 
doubt, have a most beneficial effect, but it must be remember- 
ed, that ammonia is readily absorbed by water, ana consequent- 
ly large portions of it may be lost, where the manure is so 
exposed as to become saturated with that fluid. Every precau- 
tion, consistent with a due regard to economy, should be used 
to prevent this. Placing the manure under sheds, and inter- 
mingling with it a due proportion of gypsum, would be the 
most effectual way to guard against the loss of ammonia. But 

*Liebig's organic chemistry, p. 239. 
fLiebig's organic chemistrv, 239. 



136 

in general this would be attended with too much expense. The 
next best method is to so place the manure, preparatory to its 
undergoing fermentation, as not to subject it to the drainage of 
the adjacent grounds, or the dripping of water from the roofs 
of stables, cow sheds, &c. The former object can be attained 
by a judicious selection of suitable ground for feeding yards, 
and by cutting ditches, where necessary, to carry off the wa- 
ter. The latter may be secured by erecting stables, sheds, 
&,c, so as to have the manure thrown out at the gable end, 
where there can be no dripping from the roof. Where stables 
or sheds have been already erected, upon a different plan, the 
drippings from the roof may be carried off by leading troughs. 
These precautions would leave the manure subject only to the 
effects of rain falling immediately upon it. To guard against 
this, the manure should be kept in compact heaps, so as to ex- 
pose as little surface as possible to the falling rain; to this 
end the manure, collected in cow }^ards, feeding pens, &c> 
should occasionally be thrown into heaps in the form of a 
stack, mingling therewith, during the process, a due proportion 
of gypsum. A still further precaution might be used, by re- 
moving the manure, as soon as it is in a fit condition, to the 
fields for which it is destined, and there spread. This would 
check any remaining disposition to ferment, and the falling 
rains would carry the ammonia down into the soil, with which 
it would combine, and thus all danger of further loss, to any 
considerable extent, would be avoided. From what has been 
said, it will be seen that the manure is liable to great loss du- 
ring the process of fermentation, unless the utmost care is used" 
to prevent the escape of ammo»ia. If manure is suffered to 
undergo complete decomposition, there will be a considerable 
saving of labor in hauling and spreading, and much less diffi- 
culty in ploughing the ground on which it is distributed, but 
there will be more or less loss of some of the most valuable 
ingredients of the manure. If the proper precautions are used 
to prevent the escape of ammonia, perhaps, upon the whole, it 
will be found most advantageous to suffer the manure to un- 
dergo at least a partial decomposition, before it is removed to 
the fields for which it is intended. But, notwithstanding eve- 
ry precaution that can be used in preserving and applying pu- 
trescent manures, some loss will be sustained. Ammonia read- 



137 

ily enters into combination with carbonic acid, forming a vol- 
atile compound j and is itself, while in a gaseous form, with all 
its volatile compounds, extremely soluble in water.* And 
hence every particle of water, evaporating from a dung heap, 
will carry with it ammonia and carbonic acid, unless they 
shall have been converted into a salt, which is not volatile. A- 
lumina (clay) exercises an indirect influence on vegetation, by 
its power of attracting and retaining water and ammonia. "j 
Liebig informs us, that "apart only of the carbonate of ammo- 
nia, which is conveyed by rain to the soil, is received by plants, 
because a certain part of it is volatilized with the vapor of wa- 
ter." But if the soil contains a due proport ion of gypsum, 
or when deficient in this respect, if it should be supplied from 
time to time with gypsum, "the carbonate of ammonia, 
contained in rain water," (and of course that which is carried 
down into the soil by rains, falling on putrescent manures) "is 
decomposed by gypsum, in precisely the same manner as in the 
manufacture of sal-ammoniac. Soluble sulphate of ammonia, 
and carbonate of lime arc formed; and this salt of ammonia, 
possessing no volatility, is consequently retained in the soil. 
All the gypsum gradually disappears, but its action upon the 
carbonate of ammonia continues as long as a trace of it ex- 
its.'^ It will be observed, from the reasoning of Liebig,. that 
the ammonia which the soil receives during the decomposition 
of long manure, which may be left or spread on the ground, is 
also liable to sustain a loss by combining with water and pass- 
ing off in the form of vapor. But as, in this case, the process 
of fermentation is very slow, the carbonate of ammonia will 
have more time to combine with the soil, and the roots of plants 
are constantly engaged in absorbing it. During slow fermen- 
tation there is probably but little loss of carbonate of ammo- 
nia, even when gypsum is not present, and when present none 
at all. 

So far, therefore, as the products of the soil , which are not 
useful for the consumption of man or beast, can be left on the 
ground, that will be the most economical application of ma- 
nure. In this mode of applying it, the labor of transporting 
and distributing it will be saved, and much less loss will be sus- 



*Liebig's organic chemistry, page 130. f 191. £141.. 142. 



138 

tained by evaporation than where the decomposition is rapid, 
and no gypsum is used. Thus it will be advantageous to leave 
upon the ground as much of the stubble of wheat, rye, &,c, as 
can be left consistently with an economical saving of the grain. 
With the same view corn stalks may be left on the ground and 
ploughed in. The straw of rye and oats, fed off to stock, and 
of the second crop of clover, when fully ripe, will also be of 
great advantage to the soil. All these will undergo slow fer- 
mentation, and if not suffered to be washed away by heavy 
rains from rolling lands, will add much carbonate of ammonia 
and some potash to the soil. Liebig informs us, that "ammonia, 
evolved from manure, is imbibed by the soil, either in solution 
in water, or in the gaseous form, and plants thus receive a 
larger supply of nitrogen than is afforded them by the atmos- 
phere."* Indian corn, as well as rye and oats, is sometimes fed 
off by turning stock in the field. In this mode of feeding the 
whole product of the soil is restored, and the land must neces- 
sarily be enriched, in proportion to the quantity of nourishing 
ingredients, which the growing crop received from the atmos- 
phere, (always a large proportion) with such abatement only as 
will be equal to the loss of ammonia, sustained by evapora- 
tion. 

In the remarks I have hitherto made on manures, I have not 
referred to one species, which Liebig considers of very great 
value, I allude to human excrements. This subject is treated 
very much at large, in the work to which I have so often refer- 
red, but it would extend this essay to too great a length to go 
fully into an examination of this very important ingredient. 
A {ew extracts will be sufficient to show its importance. At 
page 242 he remarks, "that if we admit that the liquid and sol- 
id excrements of man, amount on an average to 1^ lbs. daily, 
(5-4 urine and 1-4 lbs. faeces,) and that both taken together con- 
tain 3 per cent, of nitrogen, then in one year they will amount 
to 547 lbs. which contain 10.41 lbs. of nitrogen, a quantity 
sufficient to yield the nitrogen of 800 lbs. of wheat, rye, oats, 

or of 900 lbs. of barley." 

"This (he observes) is much more than is necessary to add 

to an acre of land, in order to obtain, with the assistance of ni- 
trogen absorbed from the atmosphere, the richest possible crop 

*Liebig's organic chemistry, 141. 



130 

every year. Every town and farm might thus supply itself 
with the manure, which besides containing the most nitrogen, 
contains also the most phosphates; and if an alternation of 
crops were adopted, they would be most abundant. By using, 
at the same time, bones and the lixiviated ashes of wood, the 
excrements of animals might be completely dispensed with." 
At page 246 he says "that with every pound of urine a pound 
of wheat might be produced." / 

At page 241-2 he states that liquid animal excrements, such 
as the urine with which the solid excrements are impregnated, 
contain the greatest part of their ammonia in the state of salts, 
in a form, therefore, in which it has completely lost its vola- 
tility; when presented in this condition, not the smallest portion 
of ammonia is lost to plants, it is all dissolved by water and 
imbibed by their roots." 

I will quote but one more passage which gees to show the 
great superiority of human manure over that of other ani- 
mals. "In respect to the quantity of nitrogen contained in 
excrements, 100 parts of the urine of a healthy man are equal 
to 1300 parts of the fresh dung of a horse, according to the 
analysis of Macair and Marcet, and to 600 parts of those of a 
cow." 

Ashes of wood and vegetable substances from which potash 
is derived, is also a very important manure. "Most plants, 
perhaps all of them contain organic acids of very different 
composition and properties, all of which are in combination 
with bases, such as potash, soda, lime or magnesia."* With- 
out alkaline basis, Liebig says, "most plants could not exist." 
And it is a remarkable fact that where there is a want of the 
usual alkaline base in a soil, suitable to a particular plant, an 
alkaline base will be substituted.! This fact shows the indispen- 
sable necessity of an alkaline base in all plants. If further 
proof were wanting the fact that all trees and plants contain 
more or less of the alkaline bases would be perfectly satisfac- 
tory. Some trees require much less alkali than others. Thus 
pines and fur trees require a much smaller quantity of the al- 
kaline bases than other species. And consequently the former 
thrive well on a soil where the latter could not exist.! One 



*Liebig's Organic Chemistry 148. fl49. 
|Liebig's Organic Chemistry 198. 



140 

hundred parts of wheat straw yield 15.5 parts of ashes; the 
same quantity of the dry stalks of barley 8.54 parts ; of oats 
straw only 4.42. The ashes of all these are of the same com- 
position."* The facts here stated, prove that wheat is much 
more exhausting of this particular manure than barley or oats. 

Of such great value are ashes esteemed in Germany, that 
they are transported, as Liebig informs us, "from the distance 
of 18 or 24 miles." They are particularly valuable to mead- 
ows, as these are constantly drained of their potash by the 
annual removal of the crops of hay — a crop containing a large 
portion of that ingredient. 

It is obvious that if a soil contain only a limited quantity of 
potash, it must be entirely exhausted, if the growing crops are 
annually removed, and no part of the product is restored, un- 
less a supply is derived from some other source. 

The atmosphere furnishes a small quantity, but by no 
means sufficient to replenish the waste occasioned by the 
growing crops, and hence the necessity of making up the de- 
ficiency by the application of' ashes and other manures, con- 
taining potash. 

Liebig relates an extraordinary instance of the effects cf 
depriving a soil of its potash, which occurred in the vicinity of 
Gottingen. A proprietor of land, "in order to obtain potash, 
planted his whole land with wormwood, the ashes of which are 
well known to contain a large portion of the carbonate of that 
alkali. The consequence was that he rendered his land quite 
incapable of bearing grain for many years, in consequence of 
having entirely deprived the soil of its potash."! 

Liebig says, "it is the greatest possible mistake to suppose 
that the temporary diminution of fertility in soil is owing to 
the loss of humus; it is the mere consequence of the exhaus- 
tion of the alkalies."! He states a variety of facts to corrob- 
orate this opinion. When we reflect that the principal ingre- 
dient, furnished by humus to the growing plants is carbon in 
the form of carbonic acid, and that plants derive a very 
abundant supply of this element, after the formation of their 
leaves, from the atmosphere, by means of their absorbing pow- 
er, we cannot but regard the opinion that the diminution of 

*Liebig's Organic Chemistry 189. 
■fLiebig's Organic Chemistry 161. :j:196. 



141 

fertility in soils is more owing to the loss of alkalies than hu- 
mis, is at least very plausible. Liobig is of opinion that the 
great diminution in th3 fertility of the soil, in Virginia, since 
its first settlement, is owing to the exhaustion of its alkalies. 
He estimates that "from every acre of this land, there were 
removed, in the space of one hundred years, 1200 lbs. of alka- 
lies in leaves, grain, and straw; it became unfruitful, therefore, 
because it was deprived of every particle of alkali which had 
been reduced to a soluble state; and because that which was 
rendered soluble again, in the space of one year, was not suf- 
ficient to satisfy the demands of the plants.* 

Silicate of potash is an ingredient of indispensable necessity 
to the vigorous growth of the small grains, and of all plants 
of the grass kind. Ashes is the source whence it is derived, 
and hence the importance of saving and applying this manure 
to our cultivated land, and particularly to that which is appro- 
priated to meadows and raising of wheat. Ashes, which have 
not been lixiviated, are of the greatest value, as a manure, but 
after having undergone that process, they still contain silicate 
of potash, an 1 salts of phosphoric acid, and, consequently, are 
of great importance as a manure to all plants of the grass 
kind.j 

Phosphoric acid is also a very important ingredient, particu- 
larly for the small grains. It is found in the ashes of all plants, 
"and always, in combination with alkalies and alkaline 
earths/' "The seeds of corn (wheat) could not be formed 
without the phosphate of magnesia, which is one of their in- 
variable constituents."! 

I cannot quit this subject without recommending to every 
agriculturist, a diligent study of Liebig's very able work on 
agricultural chemistry, and particularly that part of it which 
treats of manures, and the means of preserving the fertility of 
soils. 

Although the manuring of lands, if proper care be taken in 
collecting, preserving and distributing them, will do much to- 
wards preserving their fertility, and renovating such as have 
been deteriorated by bad husbandry, yet other means can be 
resorted to, with great advantage in hastening the process. 



*Liebig's Organic Chemistry 196. f228. 
^Liebig's Organic Chemistry 200. 20L 

N 



142 

A judicious system of grassing our lands, which can be ac- 
complished with but little labor, will always be found very 
useful, aud must enter largely into our system of agriculture- 
Red clover, there can be no doubt, is the best adapted to this 
purpose. In consequence of its thick growth, and its numer- 
ous and broad leaves, it is well suited to draw nourishment from 
the atmosphere ; and does so, perhaps, in a greater degree than 
any other grass, except other species of the trifolium. Red 
clover is one of the tiibe of leguminous plants, which "are 
remarkable on account of the small quantity of alkalies or 
salts in general which they contain."* The medicago sativa, 
(lucerne) according to Liebig, contains less than one per cent, 
(0.83) and red clover probably does not contain more. Hence 
one great advantage in the cultivation of this crop will be that 
it requires, to sustain its growth, but a very small portion of al- 
kali, while it will absorb from the atmosphere not only that in- 
gredient, but also nitrogen in the form of ammonia, and will 
thus add to the soil two very important ingredients that enter 
into the constituents of the food of plants. When we take in- 
to consideration, that nitrogen and the alkalies are indispensa- 
bly necessary to the growth of plants, and that these substan- 
ces are very sparingly supplied from the atmosphere, we will 
perceive the great importance of the clover crop in restoring 
and preserving the fertility of soils. Besides, this crop will 
furnish line pasturage in the early part of the year, when oth- 
er grasses are too short for that purpose. After being fed off 
by stock, whose manure is left on the ground, it produces a 
luxuriant second crop, which may either be fed off in the fall, 
or left as a coat of manure upon the ground. This may be re- 
peated two or three years in succession, as circumstances may 
require. The last crop, when fully ripe, should be ploughed un- 
der in the fall of the year, and will thus furnish a coat of ma- 
nure for the succeeding crop. If ploughed under when green, 
the operation will necessarily have to take place during warm 
weather, and consequently a rapid decomposition and escape 
of ammonia would ensue. This should always be avoided. 

Blue grass is also valuable in restoring the fertility of land, 
but the process is more slow, and should only be resorted to in 

*Liebig's Organic Chemistry 204. 



143 

lands intended for cultivation, where they can be conveniently 
left in grass some eight or ten years. 

Rye is a crop that exhausts but 'moderately when the grain 
is reaped; and when fed off by stock, upon the ground on 
which it grew, is a rapid restorer of soil which has not been 
much exhausted. It is attended with the advantage of pro- 
ducing two crops from a single sowing, the second always 
springing from the seed left on the ground by the grazing 
stock. 
" The liberal cultivation of grasses and rye — to be fed off by 

stock — coupled with a judicious rotation of crops, will un- 
doubtedly have a powerful effect in restoring the partially ex- 
hausted lands of Kentucky, but a judicious system of manu- 
ring, as recommended in this essay, would greatly add to the 
rapidity of the process, and should by no means be neglected, 
especially when lands have been considerably deteriorated by 
bad husbandry. 

Little need be said to show the necessity of good tillage in 
any tolerable system of agriculture. If land be carelessly 
cultivated, weeds not only draw from the growing crops a por- 
tion of the nourishment, which ought to have gone to their 
sustenance, but they also tend to diminish its fertility. Be- 
sides air is essentially necessary to the growth of plants, so 
much so that Liebig informs us that "without oxygen, neither 
seeds nor roots can be developed.'' If the soil be kept light, 
and finely pulverized, it greatly increases its capacity for ab- 
sorbing air and moisture. And as "plants, during their life, 
constantly possess the power of absorbing, by their roots, 
moisture, and along with it, air and carbonic acid,'** it follows, 
that "by loosening the soil, which surrounds young plants, we 
favour the access of air, and the formation of carbonic acid; 
and, 'on the other hand, the quantity of their food is diminished 
by every obstruction which opposes the renewal of air."t 

Thus by a careful and diligent cultivation of land, the crop 
is furnished more abundantly with its appropriate food, is kept 
free from the contaminating influence of weeds, is furnished 
with a due quantity of air, and is not obstructed in its growth 
by the baked earth with which careless cultivation leaves it 
hampered. And, in addition to the advantages resulting to 

*Liebig's Organic Chemistry 83. t!06. 



144 

land, the diligent husbandman is rewarded with a greatly in- 
creased crop, and the prospect of being relieved from much la- 
bor in future, by exterminating all noxious weeds from his ara- 
ble grounds. 

Liebig affirms that "the agriculture of China is the most 
perfect in the world, 1 ' and there no tveeds are suffered to gron\ 

If. by any, it should be thought I have been too minute in 
describing the elementary principles constituting the food of 
plants, I rest my justification in the opinion expressed by Lie- 
big, that "any great improvement in that most important of all 
arts (agriculture) is inconceivable without a deeper and more 
perfect acquaintance with the substances which nourish plants^ 
and with the sources, whence they are derived."* 

The judgment of Liebig will doubtless be a sufficient apol- 
ogy, unless we are content to be still subject to the reproach 
that "agriculture has hitherto never sought aid from chemical 
principles, based on the knowledge of those substances which 
plants extract from the soil on which they grow, and of those 
restored to the soil bv means of manure."t 



*Liebig's Organic Chemistry 62. -f-207-8. 

For further information, in relation to the elementary principles 
of manures, best suited for agricultural purposes, I refer to a late in- 
ter( sting woik of Liebig — "familiar letters on chemistry, in relation 
to commerce, phisiology and agriculture." In his 15th letter he shows 
the great and indispensable necessity of the alkalies, alkaline earths, 
and phosphates, in the growth of crops ; that water, as a solvent, is ne- 
cessary to enable plants to assimilate these substances, and that they 
are indispensable to enable growing crops to absorb carbon from the 
atmosphere. That inexhaustible quantities of this substance always 
exist in the atmosphere, but which cannot be obtained by growing 
crops, in sufficient abundance, unless they are properly supplied with 
the alkalies, alkaline earths, and phosphates, and enabled, by the 
presence of a due proportion of moisture, to assimilate these indis- 
pensable ingredients. The great object, he observes, is kl to enable 
these plants to assimilate the carbon of the atmosphere, which exist, 
in its carbonic acid. In furnishing plants, therefore, with mineral el- 
ements we give them the power to appropriate carbon from a sources 
which is inexhaustible; while, in the absence of these elements, the 
most abundant supply of carbonic acid, or of decaying vegetable mat- 
ter, would not increase the produce of a field." These views show 
how extremely important it is to prevent our lands from being ex- 
hausted of their alkalies and phosphates, and the absolute necessity 
of saving and applying to thecultivated fields all the ashes produced 
by the burning of fuel, brush, loga &c. and human urine which abound* 
in phosphates. 



ROTATION OF CROPS, 

To understand fully the advantages, arising from a good 
system of rotation of crops, and in what order they ought to 
succeed each other, it is essentially necessary that the princi- 
ples, upon which the system is founded, should be studied and 
fully comprehended. 

There are two theories, on this subject, both of which Lie- 
big observes, "explain how it happens, that after corn, (wheat) 
corn cannot be raised with advantage, nor after peas, peas." 
"Dacandolle supposes that the roots of plants imbibe soluble 
matter of every kind from the soil, and thus necessarily absorb 
a number of substances, which are not adapted to the purposes 
of nutrition, and which must subsequently be expelled by the 
roots, and returned to the soil as excrements.* Now as excre- 
ments cannot be assimilated by the plant which ejected them, the 
more of these matters, which the soil contains, the more un- 
fertile must it be for plants of the same species. These ex- 
crementitious matters may, however, still be capable of as- 
similation by another kind of plants, which would thus remove 
them from the soil, and render it again fertile for the first. 
And if the plants, last grown, also expel substances from their 
roots, which can be appropriated as food by the former, they 
will improve the soil in two ways." 

The other theory, of which Decandolle's is a modification r 
supposes "that the roots of different plants extract differ- 
ent nutritive substances from the soil, each plant selecting that 



*By the term "excrements" is meant those substances, absorbed by 
a plant, which it is incapable of assimilating. 

N* 



146 

which was exactly suited lor its assimilation. According to 
this hypothesis, the matters incapable of assimilation are not 
extracted from the soil, whilst M. Decandolle considers, that 
they are returned to it in the form of excrements." The the- 
ory of Decandolle supposes, that the substances, not assimila- 
ted, are returned in the same form in which they were absorb- 
ed, without having undergone any chemical change. Upon 
this supposition the results from both theories would be the 
same. Experiments, made by Macair-Princep, prove that 
the roots of plants expel matters which they are incapable of 
assimilating, but Liebig h of opinion, that the matters thus 
expelled, were formed by the plant itself from the food receiv- 
ed from some other source, that this matter is of a true excre- 
mentitious nature, and must undergo a change before it can 
serve as food for other plants.* This change is affected, in 
some soils, during the course of the ensuing fall and winter, 
by the influence of air and water, "and at the commencement 
of spring it has become converted, either in whole or in part, 
into a substance, which supplies the place of humus, by being 
a constant source of carbonic acid."f 

Liebig rein irks, that in calcareous soils the change in this 
excrementitious matter takes pkce very quickly, "for the pow- 
er of organic excrements to attract oxygen and to putrefy is 
increased by contact with the alkaline constituents, and by the 
general porous nature of such kinds of soils, which freely per- 
mit the access of air. But it requires a longer time, in heavy 
soils, consisting of loam and clay.?' 

And hence, he remark?, the same kind of plants "can 
be cultivated, whh advantage, on one soil after the second 
year, but in others not until the fifth or ninth, merely on ac- 
count of the change and decomposition of the excrements, 
which have an injurious influence on the plants, being comple- 
ted in one, in the second year; in others, not until the ninth." J 
"It has been found by experience (he continues) that in those 
districts where the intervals, at which the same plant can be 
cultivated with advantage, are very long, the time cannot be 
shortened even by the use of the most powerful manures. 
The decomposition of the peculiar excrements of one crop, 
must have taken place before a new crop can be produced." 

*Liebig's Organic Chemistry, page 210-213. f2l3. 
^Liebig's Organic Chemistry' page 213. 



147 

Flax, peas, clover, and even potatoes are plants, the excre- 
ments of which, in argillaceous soils, require the lonorest time 
for their conversion into humus; but it is evident, that the use 
of alkalies and burnt lime, or even small quantities of ashes, 
which have not been lixiviated, will enable a soil to permit 
the cultivation of the same plants in a much shorter time."* 

It may strike some with surprise, that clover and potatoes 
are placed on the list of plants, the excrements of which re- 
quire the longest time for their conversion into humus; but it 
must be recollected that ours is a calcareous soil, which, as is 
shown by a previous extract from Liebig, very quickly con- 
verts the excrements of plants into humus, and consequently 
other orops, or even the same may speedily succeed clover, 
and even potatoes. A just idea, it is believed, may be formed 
of the true principles upon which a rotation of crops is foun- 
ded, by duly considering the quotations given above. A pro- 
ductive soil must not only furnish, in sufficient abundance, 
all the ingredients which arc necessary for the food of plants, 
intended to be grown upon it, but those ingredients must be 
in such a condition as to allow of their absorption and assimi- 
lation. Hence the necessity of cultivating, upon the same 
field, different kinds of plants "in such an order of succession 
that each shall extract only certain components of the soil, 
whilst it leaves behind those which a second or third species 
of plant may require for its growth and perfect development."! 

Liebig informs us that all plants require alkalies — "some in 
the form of silicates, others in that of tartrates, citrates, ace- 
tates, or oxelates." 

"A third species of plants require phosphate of lime, anoth- 
er, phosphate of magnesia, and several do not thrive without 
carbonate of lime."! 

The great variety of substances, constituting the appropri- 
ate food for different plants, shows strongly the propriety of so 
arranging our crops, that all these ingredients may, in suc- 
cession, be appropriated. "When we grow in the same soil, 
for several years in succession, different plants, the first of 
which leaves behind that which the second, and the second 
that which the third may require, the soil will be a fruitful one 

*Liebig's Organic Chemistry, 214. 
fLiebig's Organic Chemistry, 219, |315. 



148 

for all the three kinds of produce."* If the first crop for in- 
stance, be wheat, which consumes much silicate of potash, it 
may be advantageously followed by any of the leguminous 
plants (which contain a very small portion of potash,!) such 
as turnips, beans, clover, &c, or wheat may very advantage- 
ously follow any of these crops, because they are well calcula- 
ted to prepare the ground for that crop, and take from the soil 
a very small part of the ingredient which is so absolutely in- 
dispensable to the production of the wheat crop. 

In the adoption of any system of rotation of crops, the im- 
provement of the soil ought to be a primary object. It is 
scarcely possible, that the fertility of the soil should remain 
exactly stationary. If there should be a gradual diminution 
of fertility, it will be finally exhausted and become worthless, 
because the product will no longer compensate for the labor 
bestowed. But if the rotation of crops and mode of treatment 
be such as to increase the fertility, no matter how slow the 
progress, there will be a constantly increasing product, which 
will annually add to the value of the land. 

Judge Buel, in his Farmer's Companion, justly remarks, 
that "the natural quality and condition of soils have not so 
much influence upon their ultimate products and profits as the 
good or bad management which they receive. Some of the 
now poor lands in the Atlantic States, were once as rich and 
productive as the now rieh lands of the Ohio and Mississippi 
valleys; and the latter, under the treatment, which the former 
have received, will as certainly become poor, as that like cau- 
ses will produce like effects. "J 

He further remarks, that "the tendency of this system of 
husbandry, at present pursued, and, in the new South and 
West, (with many highly creditable exceptions) is to wear out 
the soil, as it has been worn out, in many cases, on the eastern 
border of our country.''^ 

The same rotation of crops will not suit every variety of 
soil; and consequently, in making choice of a rotation for each 

♦Liebig's Organic Chemistry, 21 6. 

tin 100 parts of wheat straw, there are 15.5 parts ashes; in clover, 
(lucern) only 0.79, consequently eighteen crops of clover would con- 
sume less of the alkalies than one of wheat. See Liebie's Organic 
Chemistry, page 199 and 204. 

iFarmer's Companion, p. 56. $92. 



149 

particular farm, the proprietor must exercise his own judgment 
as to those best adapted, under all circumstances, to the soil he 
is about to cultivate. 

The importance of not making the rotation embrace too 
great a variety of products will appear from the following con- 
siderations: 1. The advantages of a division of labor apply 
as well to farming as to any other pursuit. If the attention be 
distracted by too great a variety of pursuits, there is not only 
much greater difficulty in carrying them on, but much time 
will unavoidably be lost by shifting from one to another, and 
some part of the crop will be sure to suffer from the want of 
due care, and timely application of labor. 2. There will be a 
necessity for a greater number of subdivisions of the farm, 
and consequently much more labor will be required to make 
and keep in repair the fencing, and more ground will be ren- 
dered useless than if the fields were large. 

In general a farmer will succeeed better, both as relates to 
profit, and the improvement of his soil by directing his main 
effort to the cultivation of some one productybr sale, and such 
others as may be necessary for the consumption of his family, 
and food for his stock, than if he were to embrace a wider 
range in his agricultural pursuits. 

Influenced by these considerations I shall be governed by 
them in the rotation of crops recommended in this essay.. 

Wheat is a very exhausting crop, and, for that reason, is 
not suitable to a rotation in which hemp is included. Rye is 
less exhausting than wheat, and when fed off on the ground 
by stock, is a very improving crop. Corn is so necessary, in 
every system of agriculture, suited to Kentucky, that no rotation 
can, with propriety, be adopted, in which that crop is not in- 
cluded. 

Corn, according to Judge Buel, is embraced in the second 
class of exhausting crops. It is less exhausting than either 
wheat or rye, when those crops are removed from the ground. 
In the rotation exhibited in the following table, it will be seen, 
that the hemp crop will be preceded by two crops of corn, two 
of rye, and two of clover, and consequently, if the rye be fed 
off by stock on the ground, the hemp crop will follow two mod- 
erately exhausting, two moderately improving, and two very 
highly improving crops. If, therefore, the soil be well adapt- 



150 

ed to hemp, and not much reduced by bad husbandry, at the 
commencement of the process, it will be in fine condition for 
hemp, when that crop succeeds the crops of corn, rye and clo- 
ver. 

The table is adapted to a farm of 300 acres, seventy five 
supposed to be in wood land, and 225 in cultivation. Four 
fields of fifty acres each are appropriated to the rotation crops, 
and the other 25 may be considered as intended for meadow, 
hemp seed, garden, vegetables and orchard. 

The principles of rotation may easily be applied to farms of 
larger or smaller size. It will be seen, by an inspection of 
the table, that the product of each year will be one crop each 
of corn, clover, rye and hemp. The clover crop, when suffi- 
ciently advanced, may be pastured till the rye is ripe, and then 
all stock should be removed, and the second crop suffered to 
grow up and ripen and should be ploughed under late in the 
fall, or early in the winter, running a double furrow so as to 
cover the clover as deep as possible with soil. The better to 
accomplish this a brush should be dragged over the clover, 
in the same direction in which it is to be ploughed. The en- 
tire rotation includes a period of twelve years, and will run 
thus : 

No. 2. 

Clover 

Corn 

Rye 

Clover 

Corn 

Rye 

Clover 

Corn 

Rye 

Clover 

Corn 

Rye 

The second crop of clover being ploughed under, as directed 
above, will form an excellent preparation for the ensuing crop 
of corn, which should be cultivated either with light ploughs 
running very shallow, or the corn cultivator, so as not to dis- 
turb the clover sod, until late in July or early in August. It 





No. 1. 


1841 


Corn 


1842 


Rye 


1843 


Clover 


1844 


Corn 


1845 


Rye 


1846 


Clover 


1847 


Hemp 


1848 


Hemp 


1849 


Hemp 


1850 


Hemp 


1851 


Hemp 


1852 


Hemp 



No. 3. 


No. 4. 


Rye 


Hemp 


Clover 


Hemp 


Corn 


Hemp 


Rye 


Hemp 


Clover 


Hemp 


Corn 


Hemp 


Rye 


Corn 


Clover 


Rye 


Corn 


Clover 


Rye 


Corn 


Clover 


Rye 


Corn 


Clover 



151 

should now be ploughed deep with shovel ploughs, so as to 
throw the clover seed, or a considerable portion of it, near the 
surface, which will furnish an abundant crop of clover, among 
the rye of the ensuing year. The rye should be sown the lat- 
ter part of August, and put in with a harrow or cultivator, so as 
to leave a tolerably even surface. If some of the clover shall 
have sprouted before the rye is sowed there need be no appre- 
hension about destroying it, as there will still be an abundance 
of seed to supply the future crop. If the corn should be so 
blown down as to render it impracticable to put the rye in with 
a harrow or cultivator, it may be sowed early in September, 
among the standing corn, and will succeed nearly as well as if 
ploughed or harrowed in. 

This method of managing the corn crop, after clover, will 
give the soil the benefit of the clover crop of the preceding 
year, and will entirely save the expense of sowing the future 
crop of rye with this valuable grass. The same method of 
proceeding will produce the like saving as often as the rye 
crop succeeds the clover and corn. 

The cultivation of the corn crop should be such as to pre- 
vent the weeds from going to seed, which, upon a clover sod, 
is by no means difficult. This would prevent an unnecessary 
exhaustion of the soil, and leave the ground in fine condition 
for the succeeding rye crop, and for the hemp crop, when that 
shall come in regular turn. 

Plants exhaust much more at the time of ripening their 
seed than at any previous period. And in perfecting their seed, 
they require some of the elementary principles, constituting 
the food of plants, which are but sparingly furnished by the 
atmosphere, such as nitrogen, and the phosphate of magnesia.* 
Nitrogen is found to exist in the seeds of all plants. Without 
this ingredient they cannot be formed. Hence its absolute ne- 
cessity in all good soils, and no part of it ought to be exhaus- 
ted in perfecting the seeds of noxious weeds. I approve of 
deep ploughing generally; but in cultivating corn after clover, 
as above directed, there will be no necessity for deep plough- 
ing because of the depth to which the soil was turned up the 
previous fall. The clover sod beneath will keep the ground 
very light, so that the roots of the corn can easily penetrate to 

♦Liebig's Organic Chemistry 163, 201. 



152 

a sufficient depth, and thus prevent the crop from being injur- 
ed by drouth. 

It is important that the clover crop, of the preceding year, 
should not be turned under before it is thoroughly ripe, for two 
reasons. 1, If ploughed under when green, it will necessari- 
ly be during warm weather, and consequently the putrefac- 
tive fermentation will progress rapidly, and a great part of the 
most valuable ingredients of the clover will pass off in the form 
of ammonia, and be entirely lost. And 2, Because in that 
case, ihere will be no seed for the succeeding crop of clover. 
If ploughed in late, both from the coolness of the weather and 
dryness of the clover, the fermentation will be very slow, and 
the formation of ammonia will be so gradual, that it will have 
time to combine with the soil, which has an affinity for it, and 
will thus all be saved. 

In laying off the ground for corn, in the spring after the 
clover has been turned under, it should be done with light 
ploughs and so shallow as not to disturb the clover, nor should 
it be disturbed until the time mentioned above. 

If the corn should be cut up, (which would be indispensably 
necessary if there is much stock to feed,) it would be benefi- 
cial to the rye, and the means of making much manure. The 
corn should not be cut till it is thoroughly ripe. If cut too 
green the fodder is not so good, and the corn will be greatly 
injured. With a view to saving manure, the corn should be 
fed to nittening cattle in feeding pens, so situated as to be best 
adapted to saving manure, and the convenience of hauling the 
fodder to the pens, and manure to the proper fields. That part 
of the fodder from which the corn shall have been shucked, 
should be fed in the same manner, with a view to the same 
object. 

Judge Buel says that by pursuing the course recommended 
by him, "ten or twelve loads of manure may readily be ob- 
tained every spring from each animal wintered in the yard.* 

British writers lay it down as a rule, that in a good system of 
rotation, two crops of the same kind should not succeed each 
other. And judge Buel is of opinion that" the mere alterna- 
tion of crops has a tendency to preserve the fertility of the soi!.'"t 

*Fai-mer'b Companion, p. 68. 
tFarmer's Companion, p. 209- 



153 

In the above rotation, I have adhered strictly to the rule, 
except in relation to the hemp crop. It is due that I should 
assign the reasons which induce me to depart from it, in rela- 
tion to that crop. The hemp crop requires a very rich, light 
soil; and if our naturally fertile soil has been much exhausted 
by previous cultivation, it requires several highly improving 
crops to prepare the ground for producing good hemp. Bat 
when land is sufficiently rich, and otherwise adapted to hemp, 
experience has shown that a considerable number of crops 
of that staple may be raised in succession, without the least 
exhaustion of the soil, or the smallest diminution of product. 
Hence, when there is one field on a farm, rich enough to pro- 
duce hemp, it is best to cultivate that article for a succession of 
years on that field, whilst the others are being brought into 
good condition for a similar culture. Thus, in the above rota- 
tion, I suppose field No. 4, at the commencement of the rota- 
tion, to be sufficiently fertile, and well adapted to the rearing 
of hemp. In that case, six crops in succession may be raised 
without any diminution of crop. In the meantime, the rota- 
tion of fields Nos. 1, 2, 3, will be greatly improved; and by 
the application of all the manure for three years upon field No. 
1, that will have become extremely fertile, and will be highly 
adapted to hemp, and consequently six crops in succession 
may be raised upon it to great advantage. In laying off the 
farm for this rotation, the land in field No. 1 and 4 should be the 
best adapted to the hemp crop. The rotation of hemp may be 
continued in these two fields alternately for an indefinite peri- 
od. In the meantime the fertility of the other two fields 
would be constantly progressing both by the favorable rotation 
of crops, and the application of all the manure, after the first 
three or four years, as the hemp fields would need none, after 
having once been brought into a fit condition for that crop. 
The succession of changes of the hemp crop from 4 to 1 and 
1 to 4 may be continued as long as may be deemed expedient. 
But in progress of time the hemp crop might be transferred 
to the fields Nos. 2 and 3, and the rotation of these fields may 
be transferred to No. 1 and 4. The hemp crop may, for ex- 
ample, be transferred in 1859 to field No. 2, following the rye 
crop, and field No. 4, in that case, may be made to assume the 
rotation of field No. 2. In like manner hemp may, six years 

O 



151 

thereafter, be made to take a six years rotation in field No. 3. 
Or, if deemed expedient, the hemp rotation may be shifted to 
fields, No. 2 and 3 immediately after the entire course of 
twelve years is completed. 

The manure may be most profitably applied upon the clo- 
ver, by preceding the corn crop T and it would be best to haul 
and spread it before the clover is ploughed in, so that it may 
have time to incorporate itself with the soil, and thus be high- 
ly beneficial to the succeeding crop.* It is not advisable to 

*It is a prevailing opinion, among farmers, that manure should Be 
spread and ploughed under as soon as possible, after it has been trans- 
ported to the fields for which it is intended, in order to prevent its lo- 
sing a very considerable part of its fertilizing ingredients by evapora- 
tion. The apprehension of much loss deters many farmers from haul- 
ing out their manure, when they have leisure to do so, because they 
are not sufficiently strong handed to spread and plough it under imme- 
diately, and thus the manure is suffered to lie in heaps, in situations 
in which it is in reality subject to very great loss. The apprehension 
of serious loss, by hauling manure to the field for which it is intended, 
and thus exposing it to the air and sun, are entirely unfounded. 

When manure is suffered to lie in large heaps, fermentation, accom- 
panied with much heat, ensues, and large quantities of ammonia and 
carbonic gas escape; and the alkalies are dissolved, by the falling 
rains, and carried down into the earth, and thus the most valuable 
ingredients of the manure are entirely lost. But if hauled to the 
field, for which it is intended, and thrown into small heaps, (say six 
or eight to the wagon load,) fermentation will be checked, and the 
falling rains will carry down into the soil the dissolved alkalies, and 
thus further loss will be prevented. Even when exposed to the sun 
and air by spreading, no loss can be sustained except the very mi- 
nute quantity cf ammonia, which is capable of combining with wa- 
ter and perhaps a still more minute portion of the alkalies. These 
will necessarily pass off with that fluid, by evaporation, but may, in 
some degree, be prevented, by ploughing under the manure as fast as 
it is spread. 

But I repeat, that only a very small loss can be sustained by ma- 
nure becoming dry before it is ploughed under, and no farmer ought to 
be discouraged from hauling it out, because he has not time to spread 
and plough it under immediately. If he cannot haul out the whole, 
before it becomes necessary to plough up his clover ley, he may fin- 
ish the operation, without any material loss, during the ensuing winter, 
when the ground is frozen, by hauling and spreading on the surface 
such portion of it as remains. Although it will not have time to in- 
corporate so well with the soil, and consequently so highly benefit the 
ensuing crop, yet all its virtues, with the exception aforesaid will be 
given to the soil. Every rain that falls will carry down into the earth 
a portion of its fertilizing ingredients, whereas if the manure is left at 
the stables, cow pens, feeding yards, &c., it is continually subject to 
great loss, and is every day becoming of less and less value. 

The following is recommended as the most economical plan for 
hauling manure to distant fields. Let two wagons be employed, to be 
drawn by one team. While one is gone with a load, the other may 
remain at the manure heap, to be loaded. When the wagon returns, 
the hands can very speedily shift the horses, from the empty to the 
loaded wagon, when the team may immediately start to the field. In- 



155 

apply manure to ground shortly before a hemp crop, because it 
tends to make the stalks too coarse, and hence manure should 
not be applied to field No. 1 later than 1843 or 4, after which 
all the manure should be applied to fields No. 2 and 3, as the 
rotations of the hemp fields will keep them in prime condition 
for that staple. 

Hemp should be cut — not pulled — and (if dew rotted) it 
should always be upon the ground on which it grew. Thus 
nearly every fertilizing principle which went to nourish the 
hemp crop, would be restored to the soil. Nothing would be 
removed but the lint, and even the extract from that would, in 
a great degree, be carried down into the soil, by rains, during 
the process of rotting. As hemp derives a large portion of Us 
food from the atmosphere, it would thus restore fully as much 
as it extracted for its nourishment. This is the true cause of 
hemp's not being an exhausting crop. The stubble, roots, 
leaves, blossoms, imperfect seed, glutinous matter contained 
in the lint, and the ashes of the herds or shives are all given 
back to the soil. 

No rotation of crops can be desirable, which will not afford 
a reasonable profit to the husbandman. But in estimating the 
profits of a farm, the increased value given to land by great- 
ly promoting its fertility, ought to be taken into the account. 
The least reflection will convince any one that the p rofits ari- 
sing from the cultivation of a farm, as proposed in the forego- 
ing rotation, will be very considerable. Fifty acres of hemp 
upon 1 m:l i nprovdd as it wo ild b^, would yield, upon an aver- 



steadof a body, the wagons should have loose plank, of light material, 
(say pine or poplar,) two inches thick, and 16 or 18 feet long, laid on 
the bottom, and a broad plank set up on each side. Thus arranged, 
the driver only (who should be a stout hand,) need go with a team, as 
the manure may easily and speedily be unloaded, by raising up the 
side planks — one end at a time— Kind' drawing oil* the manure, with a 
properly constructed dunghook. If the distance, to which the ma- 
nure is to be hauled, is not very short, two hands can load the manure 
as fast as the third can haul it to the field, unload, and return. In 
this way from 20 to 25 large loads of manure may be hauled per day, 
during the months of September and October, if the distance be not 
very great. But if the average be only twenty loads per day, seven 
hundred and twenty loads maybe hauled in thirty-six days, with one 
team and three hands. Thus a field, containing sixty acres, may re- 
ceive twelve large loads of manure per acre, in the short period of 
thirty-six days. If necessary, extra hands should be employed to 
perform this very important operation. Its advantages would com- 
pensate the expense more than ten fold, 



156 

age, seventeen tons, which, at the moderate price of five dol- 
lars per hundred cwL, would give $1,700. Supposing the 
woodland to be set in blue grass r as it should be, there would 
be annually fifty acres of clover, and fifty acres of rye to be 
fed off to stock, besides the fail and winter pasture of the rye 
field ; and seventy-five acres of woodland pasture ; and there 
would , besides fodder and eighteen acres of meadow, (allowing 
seven for hemp seed, garden and orchard,) be fifty acres of 
corn for winter feed. With such a provision for stock, one 
thousand dollars per annum might be realized from that source. 
And if we allow the increased value of the land to be three 
hundred dollars per annum, (a very moderate allowance,) we 
shall have three thousand dollars, as the proceeds of sales and 
the improvement of land from a three hundred acre farm. 

If it is desired that the 25 acres reserved for meadow, should 
also undergo a regular rotation of crops, it may be regulated 
as follows: Let two acres be fenced off for a garden and 
orchard,, and the remaining 23 acres be included in one field. 
One third of this field may be annually cultivated in hemp seed r 
pumpkins, potatoes, beets, &c, shifting the crops annually as 
may be deemed expedient, for three years; the other two-thirds 
may be in timothy meadow. In the fall of the third year, af- 
ter the hemp seed, pumpkins, beets &c, are removed, let this- 
third be sowed with timothy seed, and one-third of the mead- 
ow ploughed up and planted for three succeeding years, in the 
same craps, and then sowed with timothy seed; and the re- 
maining third of the meadow ploughed up. Thus the meadow 
would be entirely renewed every six years.. It would be high- 
ly advantageous to give a light dressing of ashes to that por- 
tion of the field which, every third year, is appropriated to new 
meadow.* The part appropriated to hemp seed, say two and 
a half acres, ought to have a coat of manure, as this will great- 
ly improve tho crop. And if the ground occupied by hemp 
seed be changed each year, the entire third of the 23 acres 



*Silicate of potash is an essential ingredient for the vigorous growth 
of timothy. As the hay crop is removed from the ground, the soil 
would in process of time be entirely deprived of potash, if none were 
supplied in the place of that removed. Hence, the importance of 
ashes for meadows. See Liebig's Organic Chemistry. Orchard grass 
and clover might be substituted in the place of timothy, which require 
less silicate of potash, 



157 

will, in the course of three years, have been manured, which 
will keep it in fine condition for the ensuing hay crop. 

Next to hemp, tobacco is the great staple of Kentucky, and 
must always be regarded as an important item in our system of 
agriculture. It has generally been regarded as a very ex- 
hausting crop. But it is only so because the crop is removed 
from the ground and nothing adequate returned instead. Judge 
Buel, who w 7 as a most excellent practical farmer, says, "the 
small grain crop3 are the gieatcst exhausters of the fertilty of 
the soil, on account of their narrow system of leaves, which 
draw sparingly from the atmosphere, and the large porticn of 
nutriment they extract from it (the soi!) to mature their 
seeds." It has already been remarked, that plants exhaust 
more at the time of ripening their seeds than at any previous 
period of their growth. Tobacco is a broad leaved plant, and 
consequently extracts much of its food from the atmosphere. 
It is never suffered to ripen its seed, except a few plants for re- 
newing the crop, and consequently is not liable to the objec- 
tion of exhausting more than usual at the latter period of its 
growth. From these facts it is fairly to be inferred, that the 
tobacco crop is not so great an exhauster of soil as has been 
generally supposed. Judge Buel ranks it in the second class 
of exhausting crops, and places it with Indian corn. He re- 
marks, that although these crops "have broad leaves, and de- 
rive much of their nourishment from the atmosphere, they 
are nevertheless gross feeders, bulky crops, and leave very 
little upon the soil to compensate fur what they take from it.'"* 

If, then, tobacco is an exhausting crop only in the second de- 
gree, and is less so than the small grains, it is quite apparent 
that a judicious system of rotation might be adopted, which, 
with proper applications of manure, would entirely preserve 

the fertility of our rich Kentucky lands. 

If wheat, the greatest exhauster, can be cultivated success- 
fully, without deteriorating the soil, why cannot tobacco? 
Wheat is cultivated in England, Scotland, France and Belgi- 
um to an immense extent; and yet, in all these countries, by a 
judicious system of husbandry, the farmers have been ena- 
bled to make a gradual improvement of their soil, and to obtain 
a steadily increasing product of that most useful grain. We 

*Farme r's Companion, p. 198 

o* 



158 

ought then no longer to fear that a continued culture of tobac- 
co "will necessarily wear out our soil." If it have that effect, 
it will result from bad husbandry, and not from any inherent 
deteriorating effect of the crop itself. 

There is much difficulty in forming a rotation, in which to- 
bacco shall take its regular course with other crops, suited to 
the Kentucky system of agriculture. There are several reasons 
which forbid this. In the first place, tobacco is a crop, which 
requires a soil richer than that which may be well enough adap- 
ted to corn, wheat, barley, &.c. 2, the quantity of ground cul- 
tivated in tobacco, on any one farm, must necessarily be much 
less than is appropriated to wheat, barley, &,c., because of the 
much greater quantity of labor, which that crop requires in 
proportion to the ground occupied by it. 3, the necessity of 
planting near to the place of hanging tobacco, in consequence 
of the great weight of this crop, in its green state, which makes 
its transportation a very heavy and tedious job, unless the to- 
bacco house is near the place where the crop grows. 

These considerations are conclusive against bringing tobac- 
co into a regular alternation with the ordinary farm crops 
But it may be brought into regular rotation with red clover, 
with very great advantage. The clover crop is exceedingly 
well adapted to keeping up the fertility of the soil, and at the 
same time is highly useful and profitable, in any good system 
of agriculture that may be adopted. 

Judge Buel says, "clover is less exhausting to the soil than 
almost any other crop. It derives much nourishment from the 
atmosphere, and its tap roots, penetrating to a great depth, 
break and pulverize it, and fit it admirably for the reception of 
tillage crops. We consider the use of clover as cattle food, 
great as it is, but of secondary importance to the farmer, its 
most profitable use being to feed crops, and furnish seed. No 
green crop is so serviceable as manure.* 

The rotation I would propose for tobacco would be as fol- 
lows : Let it be supposed that the quantity of tobacco, inten- 
ded to be cultivated, annually is ten acres. I would recom- 
mend that a field, containing three times that quantity of ground 
should be laid off adjacent to the tobacco house,, or houses, or 
so as to include them as nearly in a central situation as circum- 

♦Farmer's Companion, p. 158. 






159 



stances will admit. Let ten acres, on one side or end of the 
field, be cultivated in tobacco two years in succession, and the 
other twenty acres be thickly set with red clover, having a 
smooth bottom for the purpose of mowing. In the fall or win- 
ter of the second year, let ten acres of the clover ley be well 
turned under, with a large plough, and another plough of suit- 
able construction, follow in the same furrow, so as to throw up 
the mould to the depth of eight or nine inches, preparatory to 
the ensuing crop of tobacco. 

When the second year's crop of tobacco is taken from the 
ground, all the roots should be dug up, and removed to a com- 
post heap, and the ground lightly ploughed, and well harrowed 
or brushed, so as to make it as level as possible, upon which a 
very thin crop of oats should be sowed, early in March follow- 
ing, with five pecks of clover seed for the ten acres. If sow- 
ed late in February it would be still better. The ground hav- 
ing been prepared in the fall, will require no plough- 
ing or harrowing. The freezing and thawing will sufficiently 
cover the oats and clover seed, and thus a new meadow will 
be set on the ten acres, which were in tobacco the preceding 
year. 

At the end of four years, from the commencement of the 
rotation, the remaining third of the field should be ploughed as 
above directed, and prepared for the ensuing crop of tobacco; 
and the ten acres, which had been occupied with that crop, 
should be prepared and sowed in oats and clover, in all respects 
as in the previous case. 

To make the rotation more intelligible let the figures 1,2,3, 
in the following table, represent the three portions of the 
thirty acre field, and the rotation would proceed as follows : 





No. 1. 


No. 2. 


No. 3. 


1841 


Tobacco, 


Clover, 


Clover, 


1842 


Tobacco, 


Clover, ploughed 
up in fall, 


Clover, 


1843 


Oats &, clover, 


Tobacco, 


Clover, 


1844 


Clover, 


Tobacco, 


Clover, plough- 
ed up in fall, 


1845 


Clover, 


Oats & clover, 


Tobacco, 


1846 


Clover, ploughed 
up in fall, 


Clover 


Tobacco, 



160 

1847 Tobacco, Clover, Oats & clover, 

1848 Tobacco, Clover, ploughed Clover, 

up in fall. 

From the above table it will be seen that each portion of 
the field will have alternately two crops of tobacco, and four 
crops of clover, the first accompanied with oats. In the fourth 
year of the clover crop, the after math, or second crop should 
be ploughed under, as above directed. If the clover be well 
turned under, and covered deep with soil, the succeeding crop 
of tobacco may be cultivated, without disturbing the clover 
sod. Light ploughs should be used, which will form a suffi- 
cient de'pth of mould for the tobacco crop without disturbing 
the clover buried beneath. 

When the rotation gets into complete operation it may pro- 
ceed for any length of time. 

The object in sowing oats the first year, is merely to prevent 
the growth of weeds. They must not be sowed thick lest 
they should smother the young clover. And to prevent the 
oats from exhausting the ground, a heavy brush might be drag- 
ged over them, when in flower, which would prevent them 
from seeding, and would thus cause an improvement in the 
fertility of the soil by restoring all that it had produced. 

The clover ground should be manured just before it is 
ploughed up for the tobacco crop of the succeeding year. Thus 
the tobacco crop will be preceded by three full crops of clover, 
a crop of young clover and green oats, and a dressing of ma- 
nure. The soil, thus highly improved in fertility, will be am- 
ply sufficient to bear two crops of tobacco in succession. This 
will be a great convenience in the rotation, and will justify a 
departure from the general rule of not making two crops of the 
same kind succeed each other. 

Tobacco after tobacco always succeeds well when planted 
on a very fertile soil. In this rotation, ample provision is 
made to secure that object, and the inconvenience of too fre- 
quently renewing the clover meadow is avoided. According 
to this plan manuring is only necessary every other year; and 
the manure arising from twenty acres of meadow for two years 
is to be applied to ten acres of ground. 

There is another matter of importance, which should be 
strictly attended to by the tobacco planter. The second crop 






161 

or growth of tobacco exhausts nearly as much as the first, 
when the tobacco is cut early. The suckers grow very luxu- 
riantly until they are destroyed by a severe frost. This ought 
not to be suffered. The roots should be dug up, from time to 
time, soon after the tobacco is cut, and after the tobacco is all 
housed, these roots (when clover is to succeed the tobacco 
crop) should be hauled off to compost heaps on the edge of the 
clover meadow, intermingling with them a small portion of 
gypsum. When sufficiently decomposed, they would form an 
excellent dressing for the clover. If the roots were covered 
with straw or leaves, it would add to the value of the compost. 
The principles of the foregoing rotation can easily be applied 
to a larger or smaller crop than ten acres. Having explained 
the foregoing rotation for a tobacco crop, it is now proper to 
enquire what would be a suitable rotation fur other crops to be 
connected with it. Hemp and tobacco interfere too much with 
each other to be cultivated by the same farmer, and it ought 
never to be attempted. But the rotation, as heretofore given 
for hemp, by leaving out that item, will very well answer to 
accompany the tobacco crop. It would run thus: 

No. 2. No. 3. 

Clover, Rye, 

Corn, Clover, 

Rye, Corn, 

This rotation will give annually a crop of corn, one of clo- 
ver and one of rye. The main crop, in connection with this 
rotation, would be tobacco. That would be the product for sale, 
and the others would be for feeding stock. If the rye crop 
should be fed off to stock, as it should be, the above rotation 
would be composed of one moderately exhausting, one mode- 
rately improving, and one very highly improving crop each 
year. And if all the manure derived from these crops, should 
be applied to the clover crop, in the fall preceding the 
corn crop, and ploughed in, as directed, when speaking of the 
hemp rotation, the improvement would be very rapid. In the 
meantime much stock could be sustained from the product of 
these crops, and the woodland pastures, which would add to the 
profits derived from the tobacco crop. The annual increased 
value of the land, arising from its rapid increase of fertility 
must also be taken into the account. When the soil shall have 





No. 1. 


1841 


Corn, 


1842 


Rye, 


1843 


Clover, 



162 

been sufficiently renovated by the above rotation, wheat or 
barley may be substituted in the place of rye, when the rota- 
tion may proceed as in the table. But in that case there will 
be two exhausting crops, and only one improving crop. If by 
this change the soil should be found to diminish in fertility, the 
crop of rye should again replace the wheat. Thus rye, wheat, 
and barley may alternately be introduced into the rotation 
without the least inconvenience. The above rotation requires 
but three fields, besides that appropriated to tobacco. After 
the first sowing of clover seed, that enriching product will al- 
ways be supplied by the seed left in the ground by the old crop, 
as herein before explained. No rotation can, therefore, be 
more simple, or more economical, and at the same time so en- 
riching as the above. 

In the above rotation wheat or barley may be substituted in 
the place of rye at the commencement of the rotation, provi- 
ded the soil is fertile enough to bear two exhausting to one im- 
proving crop, but this should not be done, except when the soil 
is verv fertile, and then should not be Ions' continued. 

In soils that are too thin for tobacco, that crop may be omit- 
ted, and two or three crops of clover may follow the wheat or 
rye, as the case may be. In the former case four fields, in the 
latter five would be necessnrv. One of these rotations would 
be proper in clay soils, having but little vegetable mould, and 
where the main crop for sale, is intended to be wheat or bar- 
ley. In the poorer kinds of soil three crops of clover should 
succeed the wheat or barley, and the clover crop should be aid- 
ed by the replication of gypsum, at the rate of half a bushel 
per acre, in the spring of the second year. 

A considerable portion of the Kentucky lands are what are 
called oak lands. Some of this is well adapted to wheat, and 
some again are of a less fertile sort, but all are capable of con- 
siderable improvement, and great efforts should be made to ac- 
complish that object. 

The farmer should recollect, that in proportion as he adds to 
the fertility of his soil he increases its annual product, and en- 
hances the value of his land, whilst, by a contrary system, the 
product will annually diminish, until it will no longer compen- 
sate for the labor bestowed on its cultivation, and his land will 
havebecoine of little or no value. He should never forget, 



163 

that, by a proper system of husbandry, he is constantly draw- 
ing from the atmosphere a sufficient portion of fertilizing in- 
gredients to make his land annually increase in fertility, pro- 
vided he will do his part, by adopting a proper system of rota- 
tion of crops, and restoring to the soil, in the form of manure, 
that portion of the product, which remains after consuming all 
that is useful for man or beast. 

The following rotation, though not strictly in conformity 
with the English system, I have found to be a very convenient 
and profitable one, in connection with the hemp crop. Let 
three fields, of sixty acres each,* be appropriated to corn, rye 
and hemp, one of which should be well adapted to, and suffi- 
ciently fertile for the latter crop. This field may be cultivated 
in hemp for ten or twelve years in successsion, without the least 
diminution of crop, or deterioration of soil. The other two 
fields may be cultivated in corn and rye, two years each, al- 
ternately. Thus after cultivating one field in corn, two years 
in succession, so carefully as not to suffer any weeds to ripen 
their seeds, let it be sowed down in rye, in the month of Sep- 
tember, putting it in with a harrow or cultivator, if the corn 
stands up well; if not, let the rye be sowed among the corn 
without ploughing or harrowing. By putting a little more seed 
than usual, this mode of sowing will answer nearly as well. 
The rye may be pastured, when the ground is not too wet, 
through the winter and spring till the 15th of April, when the 
stock should be removed, and the grain be suffered to ripen. 
No part of the crop should be reaped. It should all be fed off 
to stock on the ground, after the grain is fully ripe. About the 
first of September, or after the first considerable rain, subse- 
quent to that period, the rye, which has not been consumed, 
(and there will always be enough left for that purpose) will 
begin to sprout. The stock should now be all removed until 
the young growth shall have obtained a good state of forward- 
ness for pasturing, which will be in November or December, ac- 
cording to the favorableness of the season. It may be pastur- 
ed, as in the preceding year, till the 15th of April, when it 
should again be suffered to grow up and seed, and be fed off as 



*If a farm has been already divided into a greater number of field?. 
two or more may be appropriated to hemp or corn, &c. without de- 



ranging the rotation. 



164 

before. The volunteer rye will again furnish some pasture, 
during the ensuing winter, but care should be taken not to suf- 
fer stock to remain on it, after the frost is out of the ground, 
during the winter or spring preceding the corn crop. It is ve- 
ry important to be particular in this respect, for if stock are 
suffered to remain on the ground when soft, as it always is 
when it first thaws, it will break up very cloddy, aud will great- 
ly injure the ensuing corn crop, besides considerably increas- 
ing the labor of cultivating it. The ground should be plough- 
ed as early in the spring as it may be found in suitable condition 
for that purpose, preparatory for the ensuing corn crop, but 
this operation should be performed when it is dry enough to 
turn up with a fine mould. It should never be ploughed when 
wet enough to cause the soil to bake. 

In the fall and winter after the second crop of rye is fed off, 
all the manure of the plantation should be hauled and spread 
on the ground on which this crop had grown. 

The alternate rotation of corn and rye, as above, may be 
continued as may be found convenient. But in process of 
time it may be advantageous to transfer the corn to the hemp 
field. This may be accomplished as follows, let the most fer- 
tile field, appropriated to rye and corn, be sowed with red clo- 
ver seed, in the month of February, next after the rye was 
sowed, and be continued in clover three years, including the 
year it was sowed, to prepare the ground for hemp. This field 
would thus be enriched by one crop of rye, fed off to stock, 
and two full crops of clover, fed off in the same way. In the 
fall or winter of the third year the second crop of red clover 
should be ploughed under, as before directed in this essay, pre- 
partory to the ensuing hemp crop, which would leave it in fine 
condition for that purpose. And as the hemp crop would now 
occupy the field, thus prepared for it, corn should be planted in 
the field which had previously been occupied with hemp. 

In making this change of rotation it will be necessary to 
continue the corn crop three years in succession before it is 
followed by rye. This, hewever, will happen only once in 10 
or 12 years. And when it does happen the exhaustion of 
these successive corn crops should be compensated by a pro- 
portionable application of manure. 

Under this system of rotation besides the three fields for 



ioo 



hemp, corn and rye, there must be separate incSosures for 
meadows, orchard, garden, pumpkins, potatoes, hemp seed, 
pastures, feeding lots, &c. so arranged and partitioned off as 
to be most convenient. Seed rye may either be purchased 
every second year, or may be raised by sowing a few acres in 
the field reserved for corn. 

The above rotation of corn and rye may be conveniently 
connected with that for tobacco, before explained. 

The rotation exhibited in the following 1 table is very highly 
recommended in a communication published in the 17th No.. 
Vol .4 of the Kentucky Farmer. In a soil of good quality and 
well adapted to wheat and rye it will be found a valuable al- 
ternation of crops, where wheat is intended to be the principal 
one, provided great care be used in saving and applying ma- 
nure upon the fallow ground, as recommended in the communi- 
cation. From the table it will be seen that the full course ex- 
tends through a period of eight years, and that eight fields 
will be necessary for the rotation. Of the eight fields three 
will be annually in wheat, two in clover, one each in rye and 
corn, and one will be appropriated to summer fallow. 

A rotation of eight fields of twenty-five acres each, num- 
bered 1 to 8. 

12345678 

7 j641 Fallow Corn Rye Wheat Clover Wheat Clover Wheat 

1842 Wheat Fallow Com Rye Wheat Clover Wheat Clover 

1843 Clover Wheat Fallow Corn Rye Wheat Clover Wheat 

1844 Wheat Clover Wheat Fallow Corn Rye Wheat Clover 

1845 Clover Wheat Clover Wheat Fallow Corn Rye Wheat 

1846 Wheat Clover Wheat Clover Wheat Fallow Corn Rye 
.1847 Rye Wheat Clover Wheat Clover Wheat Fallow Corn 
1848 Corn Rye Wheat Clover Wheat Clover Wheat Fallow 

According to the above rotation a farm of three hundred acres 
of land will give annually seventy-five acres of wheat, fifty 
acres of clover, and twenty-five acres each of corn and rye, 
leaving 125 acres for woodland, orchard, garden, feeding pens, 
and fallow. Twenty-five acres of the clover miy be appropri- 
ated to meadow, and the residue to pasture. There is, therefore, 
abundant provision made for food for work horses and cattle, 
and a reasonable stock for a small farm. There will be no ne- 
cessity to sow clover seed more than once during the entire 
course, that is on the wheat crop following summer fallow; 

J? 



1G6 

and as fallow occurs but in one field the same year, seed for 
twenty five acres only will be required each year. The sec- 
ond crop of clover being ploughed under when ripe, will always 
afford seed enough for the ensuing crop of wheat. 

If not too exhausting to the soil, the above rotation will no 
doubt be a very profitable one, on land not adapted to hemp or 
t>bacco, but suitable for wheat, rye and corn. The summer 
f illow is not in conformity with the modern system of farming, 
but as it occurs but once in eight years, and will afford a very 
great convenience in applying manure, during the fallow year* 
I think this can be no objection to the system. 

All the manure arising from the whole farm is to be applied 
to the fallow ground. Only one eighth of the arable land is 
to be manured each year, and consequently the whole two hun- 
dred acres will be manured once in eight years. If manure be 
carefully saved and applied as required by this system of ro- 
tation, and especially if al! the ashes that can be annually 
saved — leached and unleached — be equally distributed over the 
fallow field, it is probable the fertility of a good soil may be 
preserved. It would be advantageous to keep a small flock of 
sheep upon the fallow field to nip the weeds and convert them 
into manure, but ihey should not be suffered to run there du- 
ring wet times, as they would injure the ground by treading it. 
The manure, if possible, should be hauled and spread before 
the wheat is sown, but if not completed in time, the residue 
could be applied as a top dressing during the winter when the 
ground is frozen so hard as to bear the wagon and team. 

If the above rotation should be found too exhausting it may 
be improved very greatly, so far as regards the preservation of 
the fertility of the soil, by continuing clover two years instead 
of one, where that crop follows wheat in the above table. The 
eTectof this addition of the clover crop would be to require ten 
instead of eight fields, each containing twenty acres. There 
would then be in each crop annually sixty acres of wheat, 
eighty acres of clover, twenty each of rye and corn, and 
twenty acres in fallow. According to this plan the most ex- 
hausting part of the rotation "wheat, rye, corn," would be pre- 
ceded by two wheat crops and four clover crops, instead of two 
of each. There will also be but twenty acres to manure an- 
nually instead of twenty-five, and nearly double the quantity 
of clover to produce manure. 



1G7 

Leguminous plants, in consequence of the very minute quan- 
tity of silicate of potash which they require, are very finely 
adapted to enter into rotation with wheat, which requires a 
large portion of that ingredient. Hence, in England, the 
great advantage arising from an alternation of "beans and 
wheat,"" or what is still better, "beans, heans and wheat. M I 
have no doubt beans might be introduced with great advantage 
into a rotation with wheat or barley in many of our soils, 
which arc not adapted to hemp and tobacco. The rotation 
might run thus, "clover, beans, wheat." A still more impro- 
ving rotation would be "clover, clover, beans, wheat." The: 
former would require three, the latter four fields. In these ro- 
tations the second crop of clover being ploughed in when ripe, 
would always furnish seed for the succeeding crop growing 
with the wheat. 

Connected with the above rotation, rye and corn, in separate 
fields, might be cultivated, but the rye should be fed off on the 
ground, and manure should be applied on the rye stubble, pre- 
ceding the corn crop. 

In concluding this Essay, 1 would advise that whatever ro- 
tation the intelligent farmer may adopt, it would be advantage- 
ous to arrange it in the form of a table, according to the fore- 
going examples, which would enable him to see at a glance, the 
regular succession of his crops for as many years in advance as 
he chooses to introduce into his table. 



ADVANTAGES OF MANUFACTURES TO AGRICULTURE * 

That a steady and adequate market for agricultural pro- 
ducts tends to render the agricultural interest prosperous, is & 
proposition so self-evident as to need no illustration. In ex- 
amining the question how far a home market for agricultural pro- 
ducts is important to the agricultural interest, it is necessary 
to consider the state of the foreign market, and to ascertain 
whether it is sufficient for the consumption of our surplus agri- 
cultural products; and whether there is a reasonable probabili- 
ty of that market increasing in a ratio with the increase of 
our population and production. 

If European markets were generally thrown open to our ag- 
ricultural products, and the products of our forests, mines, anc? 
fisheries, subjecting them to duties no higher than those which 
we impose upon the manufactures and other productions of 
those countries, their markets would be of great importance in 
advancing the interests of agriculture and commerce, and 
would, in a corresponding degree, lessen the importance of a 
home market, But if, by the commercial regulations of for- 
eign Governments, we are so restricted in our intercourse with 
them as to leave us a market for only an inconsiderable portion 
of our products, and, generally,, inadequate prices for even that 
portion, then the importance of a home market will be enhan- 
ced in a corresponding degree. 

During the last session of Congress, Mr. Webster, the 






*A premium was awarded in favor of the above essay, at the annu- 
al meeting; of the Kentucky Agricultural Society, in Frankfort, ia 
January 1843," 



1G9 

Secretary of State, made a very elaborate report upon the 
tariff of duties, levied upon our products by the different na- 
tions of Europe, which, in the general, are extremely burden- 
some and frequently prohibitory. As a sample of the general 
legislation affecting our interests, I will give some of the more 
important items of the British tariff, a nation with whom we 
have a far more considerable commerce than with any other. 

According to Mr. Webster's report, the following articles are 
wholly prohibited : 

Fish — dried, smoked, or pickled. 

Pork — corned or slightly salted. 

Gunpowder and shot. 

Cattle and sheep. 

Timber of different kinds, subject to '-enormous" duty, gen- 
erally prohibitory, besides a discrimination in favor of their 
own Colonies and vessels, from 250 to 1,000 per cent. 

The following articles are allowed to be imported, but arc 
subject to such heavy duties as to either operate as an exclu- 
sion or so as greatly to limit their consumption : 

Tobacco — in the leaf, per pound, 75 cent- 
do. manufactured, do. s-2 16. 

Flour, wheat, rye and oats, and other grain — subject to a sli- 
ding scale of duty, regulated by weekly reports of the price 
in the principal grain districts, and so high as to amount to a 
prohibition, except when, from a failure of crops in England, 
the prices of grain rise very high. 

Bacon ham-, $2,72 percwt. 

Pickled pork, $2,88 do. 

Pickled beef, same duty.* 

Lard, $1,72 per cwt. 

*Whilst the revision of the tariff was under consideration by ou.' 
Government, the British Parliament, by way of ruse de guerre, made 
some slight reductions on a few of the products of our agriculture: 
among the rest, are hams, beef, and pork. Flattered into the hope 
of anew market, and encouraged by the extreme low price of these 
articles, during the last spring, at New Orleans, some shipments were 
made to Liverpool, where they were thrown into market, after having 
been extensively advertised. A Liverpool paper, noticing this intro- 
duction of provisions from the United States, says: " We question 
whether the sales have resulted to the satisfaction of the importers 
generally. Of the United States provisions a large portion was with- 
drawn. The hams sold, brought 30s. 6d. to 31s. per cwt., duty paid. 
Prime beef, 38s. to 39s. perbbl., duty paid." Poor prices, indeed, af- 
ter deducting duty, freight, charges, &c. 

P* 



170 

Potatoes, 48 cents per cwt. 

To these duties, except on flour and grain^ there was ad- 
ded by statute, 3d Victoria, May 1840, an additional duty of 
five percent. 

Tallow candles, $15,20 per cwt. Hides—tanned only, 12- 
cents per lb ; tanned and dressed, 18 cents. Hard soap, $21,60 
per cwt.; soft soap, $17,04. Beeswax, $14,40 per cwt.; un- 
bleached, $7,90. Window glass, $40- per cwt. Paper, 18 
cents per pound. These comprise nearly all our agricultural 
products except cotton. 

This is, as yet, subject to only a moderate duty because it is 
essential to the support of their own manufacturers that they 
should be supplied with this raw material at a low rate, to ena- 
ble them to compete successfully with other nations, in the 
manufacturing of cotton goods 

Cotton pays a duty of 70 cents per cwt., and with the addi- 
tional five per cent, under the statute of 3d Queen Victoria, 
will amount to about 73 cents per 112 lbs. But, if imported 
in British vessels, it pays a duty of only eight cents per cwt.; 
an evidence of the great care with which Great Britain pro- 
tects her navigation interests. 

How long the cotton-growing interest is to be thus favored 
will depend upon the success of the effort now making to grow 
a sufficient supply of cotton in the British East India posses- 
sions to supply their own factories. From a report of the 
chamber of commerce of Bombay, it appears that from the 1st 
of June, 1810,.to the 1st of June, 1841, there was imported 5 
into tint harbor alone,. 172,212,755 lbs. of cotton, from the dif 
ferent ports of the British possessions in. India. This is a lar- 
ger quantity than, was raised in- the United States, in any one 
year, prior to 1825. From the progress already made in the 
culture of cotton, there is just reason to apprehend that many 
years cannot elapse before the British East Indies will grow a 
sufficient quantity of cotton to supply her own factories, except, 
perhaps, the finer kinds — the Sea Islands— when she will no 
doubt pursue the policy by which she has always been govern- 
ed, of giving protection to her own products by levying high 
duties on those of foreigners competing with them, and thereby 
cutting off or greatly curtailing our market for raw cotton. 

Having given a hasty sketch of the manner in which our 



171 

products are affected by British legislation, let us now see what 
effect it has had upon the amount of our exports of agricultu- 
ral products. 

If we are to rely upon a foreign market for our surplus pro- 
ducts, we ought to have a reasonable assurance that that mar- 
ket would be enlarged in proportion to our increase of popula- 
tion and production. Let us see whether such a hope can be 
reasonably indulged. 

Tobacco is one of our principal staples. 

hhds. 
Of this article there was exported, in 1701 101,272 

do do. in 1792 112,428 



Average for the two years 100,850 

During eleven years, from 1816 to 1826, 

inclusive, the average exports was 75,992 



Showing an annual falling off, during these 

years, of 30,858 

During the first period, our population was about four mil- 
lions, (by the census of 1790, 3,929,320.) During the last 
period, it averaged about ten millions, (by the census of 1S20, 
9,625,734.) Consequently, if the exports of tobacco had in- 
creased in an equal ratio with our population, they would have 
averaged, annually, during the last period, 267,125 hhds* 
Here there is an annual falling off in the market for tobacco, 
compared with our population,, of 160,275 hhds. In other 
words, if a population of four millions required a market for 
100,850 hhds., a population of ten millions required a market 
for 207,125 hhds. Bat, if we come down to a later period, we 
shall find no improvement at all corresponding with our increase 
of population in the foreign market for tobacco. In the year 
1840, our Government sent a special agent (Mr. Dodge) to 
Europe to endeavor to effect a more favorable disposition among 
foreign Governments as to the reception of our tobacco, and to 
obtain fuller information as to the duties- levied upon it. In a 
letter, dated London, 16th November, 1840, Mr. Dodge esti- 
mates the consumption of tobacco, annually,, by all the pow- 
ers of Europe, to be 83,396 hhds., and the duty levied there- 
on to be $35,071,820. He observes in his letter: "One thing 



172 

is certain, that, on 86,396 hhds. of American tobacco, costing 
in the United States, $6,450,820, and legally introduced into 
Europe, a revenue is derived of about $35,000,000, being 
nearly six times more than its original cost.' 1 ' 1 Thus the for- 
eign market for tobacco, in 1840, was less than the average 
of 1791 and 1792 by 20,454 hhds. Our population in 1840 
was over seventeen millions; and if the market for tobacco had 
increased in a ratio with our population, the export for the 
year 1840 would have been four and a quarter times as much 
as the average of 1791 and 1792, that is, 480,825 hhds. in- 
stead of 86,396. 

Flour is another of our great agricultural staples. The av- 
erage annual export of that product for five years, from 1791 
to 1795, inclusive, was 810,433 bbls. For the five years from 
1822 to 1826, inclusive, the average annual export was 850,- 
599 bbls. Here is an increase of less than five per cent, in 
thirty-one years, whilst our population increased, during the 
same period, from four to about eleven millions, that is, 175 
per cent. But if we come down to a later period we shall 
find the foreign market for flour diminishing instead of increas- 
ing- The average annual export of flour for a period of five 
years, from 1836 to 1840, inclusive, was only 600,396 bbls., 
whereas, if the export of this product of agriculture had in- 
creased in a ratio with our population since the year 1792, it 
would have been nearly four times as great as the average of 
1791 and 1792, that is, 3,241,740 bbls. 

The annual export of beef, on an average of five years, 
from 1791 to 1795, inclusive, was 106,850 barrels. The an- 
nual export of the same article, on an average of five years, 
from 1822 to 1823, inclusive, was 86.396 barrels, showing an 
average annual falling off of 20,454 barrels. If the market 
for beef had increased, in a ratio with our population, the an- 
nual export would have been increased about 175 per cent., 
equal to 293,733 barrels, instead of 86,396. 

The annual export of pork, on an average of five years 
from 1791 to 1795. inclusive,, was 48,815 barrels. The an- 
nual export of the same article, from 1822 to 1826, averaged 
73,205 barrels. Here is an increase of 51 per cent, in 31 
years, being greater than any other article yet examined; but, 
during the same period, our population increased about 175 per 
cent. 



173 

I have not at hand a table of exports of beef and pork for 
a period later than 1826, If the examination were carried 
on, down to the present time, the results would probably not be 
more favorable than the above. 

There are no tables showing the exports of the products of 
the forest prior to the year 1803. For that and the four suc- 
ceeding years, they averaged annually $5,015,000; and for the 
five years from 1822 to 18215, inclusive, $4,418,859, showing 
a falling off of more than half a million of dollars annually. 
If the foreign market had improved, in a ratio with our popu- 
lation, the value of the exports of the product of the forest 
would have been about $8,910,521. 

I have now gone through with all the important agricultural 
products, which are exported by the States, that do not grow 
cotton and rice; and it will be seen, so far from the foreign 
market keeping pace with our population, that in relation to 
most of the articles, there has been a considerable decrease 
of exports, showing an actual falling off, instead of an increase 
in the foreign demand for our products. And as our popula- 
tion, from the year 1790 to 1840, has more than quadrupled, 
it is evident that we cannot rely upon a foreign market tbr the 
products of those States, which, from climate, cannot engago 
in the culture of cotton. The exports of cotton, unlike other 
agricultural products, has constantly increased, greatly beyond 
the ratio of the increase of population, and hence it appears 
that hitherto the foreign market for this staple has advanced 
even more rapidly than the population of the cotton-growing 
States. 

The exports of cotton and rice — products of the 
cotton growing States — for the year 1841, a- 
mounted in value to $50,340,448 

The exports for the same year, of all other ag- 
ricultural products, not including the products 
of the forest, amounted to $27,407,499 

Thus the cotton and rice growing States, South Carolina, 
Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi, Arkansas, and the Territory of 
Florida, with a population of 2,403,878, say, (including the 
small portion of North Carolina, Tennessee and Louisiana en- 
gaged in raising cotton,) two and a half millions have a for- 
eign market for their two staple products, cotton and rice, 



174 

equal to $22,50 per head, whilst the residue of our agricultu- 
ral population, amounting to ten millions seven hundred thou- 
sand,* have a foreign market for their agricultural products of 
all descriptions, including the products of the forest, of less 
than three dollars and a quarter per head. Our Southern 
brethren have, moreover, a home market for one-sixth of aR 
the cotton they raise. The home market for the years 1838, 
1839 and 1840, averaged 289,500 bales, equal to 115,800,000 
lbs., which somewhat exceeds one-sixth of the average exports 
of those years. I have no correct data to ascertain the con- 
sumption of rice in the United States, but I have no doubt it is 
larger, in proportion, than the consumption of cotton, and con- 
sequently the home market, for Southern products, is fully 
equal to one-sixth of all that are raised. 

Now, if so extensive a foreign market, in addition to the 
home consumption, is necessary to the wants of the cotton- 
growing States, it is very evident that that portion of our ag- 
ricultural interest, which is not eno-aged in the culture of rice 
and cotton, cannot be in a flourishing condition, but, on the 
contrary, must be exceedingly distressed, unless they can have 
a home market for their agricultural products sufficient to com- 
pensate the deficiency of the foreign market. The foreign 
market for cotton and rice is about seven times as great, in 
proportion to population, as for other agricultural products; and 
consequently to make good this deficiency a home market ought 
to exist equal to six times the present market for these pro- 
ducts, to wit: $19,50 per head. This, for a population of 10,- 
200,000, would require a. home market equal in value to $198,- 
900,000. Even with such a home market as this, the cotton 
and rice-growing States would still have the advantage arising 
from the home market for their products, equivalent, as shown 
above, to one-sixth of their foreign market. 

The facts and illustrations above set forth show, most con- 
clusively, not only the importance, but the absolute necessity 

*By the returns of the census of 1840, persons engaged in agricul- 
ture, 3,717,756, and in all other occupations 1,099,448. This includes 
only the adult population. If a due allowance be made for females, 
infants, &c,, the entire population will be nearly as follows: 
Engaged in agriculture, 13,200,000 

In manufactures, trades, and all other pursuits 3,900,000 

17,100,000; 



175 

of a homo market for the agricultural products of those States 
not engaged in the cultivation of cotton and rice; and that even 
for the latter, the homo market, though not so absolutely essen- 
tial, is greatly beneficial, coming as it does in aid of the foreign 
market, in which the supply already presses so closely on the 
demand, as scarcely to allow of a fair remuneration to the 
growers of cotton for the labor and capital expended in its cul- 
ture. 

[ will now present some facts, more in detail, to show how 
important to the agricultural interests the home market has a!- 
already become, and the great advantages which will result 
from giving such encouragement to agriculture as will secure 
a constant and steady increase of that market. 

A home market for agricultural products to a large amount 
arises from the productions of one part of our extensive coun- 
try being consumed by the cultivators of the soil in another 
part. Thus, the sugar, and molasses of Louisiana, and the 
cotton and rice of Georgia, South Carolina, &c., and the fruits 
of all the Southern States, are consumed to a large extent in 
the States in which these articles are not produced; and the 
Southern States are supplied in turn with bread-stuffs, meat, 
horses, mules, beef, cattle, hogs, &c, and the fruits of tho 
Middle and Northern States. Other agricultural products, of 
various kinds, are consumed by those who are engaged in cul- 
tivating the soil, in consequence of their preferring to buy cer- 
tain agricultural products rather than to raise them, such as 
wheat, by hemp-growers, cattle-feeders, &c-, and numerous 
other instances of the like nature. 

There are no data upon which an estimate, even approxi- 
matinffthe truth, can be made of the extent of the home mr-r- 
ket, arising from this cause. 

There are two other sources from which a home market, im- 
mediately affecting the agricultural interest, arises. 

1. By the use of the raw materials, which are the product 
of agriculture, by the mechanic and manufacturing trades. 
To these materials, additional value is given by mechanical 
and manufacturing industry, and they find a market chiefly at 
home, and to some extent, are exported and sold in foreign 
countries. 

2. Agricultural products consumed by those who are engaged 
in occupations other than agriculture. 



176 

Of the former, the following are some of the principal items; 
wool, cotton, raw hides, hemp, flax, and tobacco. To these, 
many other small items might be added, such as flaxseed, con- 
verted into oil, lard into candles, palmachrista bean into castor 
oil, boards into furniture, &c. 

It is estimated that there are at least twenty millions of 
sheep in the United States. Estimating the fleeces, washed 
on the sheep's back, at two and a half pounds each, and to be 
•worth, on an average, 30 cents per pound, fhe value of wool 
would be $15,000,000 

11,800,000 lbs. of cotton, average 10 cents 11,580,000 

Raw hides, estimating the products to be 75 

per head, (a low estimate,) 12,750,000 

Other items enumerated, and all others, esti- 
mated 10,670,000 



$50,000,000 

We have here a home market for the products of agriculture, 
amounting to fifty millions of dollars, for which we are in- 
debted to mechanical and manufacturing industry. 

To form a correct estimate of the consumption of the pro- 
ducts of agricultu/e by those engaged in other occupations, I 
will take the estimate, which has resulted from experience in 
England, to wit: that six bushels of wheat for each soul is ne- 
cessary to feed her population. According to this estimate, 
3,900,000 persons would require for food, 23,400,000 bushels 
of wheat, equal (taking into consideration the offal) to five mil- 
lions barrels of flour, which at an average of $5 per barrel, 
would amount to $25,000,000. Meats, vegetables, milk, but- 
ter, cheese, poultry, eggs, fruit, &c, would, at a low estimate 
amount to twice as much as the bread-stuffs, making the agri- 
cultural products consumed by those engaged in pursuits other 
than agriculture, $75,000,000, and 125,000,000, including 
the raw materials consumed or worked up by the mechanics 
and manufacturers. This sum, though it may appear large, I 
have no doubt is less than the real amount, and falls greatly 
short of what I have shown the home market ought to be, to 
render it equivalent to the foreign market for Southern pro- 
ducts. To the above items, however, should be addefyhe 
amount of agricultural products of one part of the country 






177 

consumed by the agricultural population of other parts; and 
also the amount consumed by the horses, cows, &c, of those 
not engaged in agriculture. There are no data upon which a 
tolerably correct estimate can be made of the amount of agri- 
cultural products consumed in this way. In my judgment, the 
amount cannot be less than fifty millions of dollars, making 
the amount or value of the home market $175,000,000. 

The difference between the value of the home and foreign 
markets, for the agricultural products of the States which do 
not grow cotton, it will be seen, is very great, and consequent- 
ly, that it is extremely important for the agricultural interest, 
that the home market should be cherished, and extended as 
far as possible. 

To show the important bearing which mechanics and manu- 
facturers have, in rearing up a home market, I need only re- 
mark that, by the late census, it appears that they compose 
considerably more than two-thirds— nearly three-fourths — of 
the non-agriculturists; and, besides, to them exclusively is due 
the market arising out of the consumption or working up of 
the raw materials, as herein before explained. 

But to form a true estimate of the full value of the home 
market, we must take into consideration the products of our 
iron, lead, copper, and coal mines, and the increased value giv- 
<m to every description of raw material, by the industrial la- 
bors of our mechanics and manufacturers. Every dollar ad- 
ded to the value of these raw materials, is a dollar added to the 
general stock of wealth. The amount of wealth thus created 
- — the term is not too strong — is greater by far, than is gener- 
ally supposed; and it is much to be regretted that we 
have not more accurate materials from which a correct esti- 
mate might be formed. Take as a sample, a few articles of 
which we have sufficient data to form a tolerably correct esti- 
mate. 

There was manufactured, in the United States, in the year 
1842,158,000,000 yards of printed calico, estimated to have 
cost 11 cents per yard, on an average $17,338,000 

Cotton goods, not printed — probably twice the 

amount 34,676,000 

$53,012,000 

a 



178 
Deduct the cost of the raw material 11,580,000 



Added to the wealth of the country, by this 

branch of manufacture alone $40,434,000 

Paper, made out of a material costing but little 16,000,000 
Iron, raw material taken from the earth 16,000,000 

The increased value given to iron, by working it up and 
applying it to a thousand useful purposes; these, and liimdreds 
of other articles might be enumerated, which are the results 
of mechanical and manufacturing skill, if we had the data up- 
on which to make correct estimates. 

Past experience has shown that our population has steadily 
increased at the rate of 33^ per cent, for each ten years, 
whilst the foreign market, so far from progressing in an equal 
ratio, is not so good note, for the aggregate of our productions, 
as it was in 1792, forty years ago. We have not the slightest 
ground to hope for such an improvement of that market, as to 
render it adequate to the wants of our rapidly increasing popu- 
lation. There is no alternative left us, then, but to cultivate 
our own resources, and to strive to give an impetus to the home 
market, which will carry it forward with a rapidity equal to the 
ratio with which our population advances. This can be done 
only by encouraging and invigorating the operations of our 
iron, lead, copper, and coal mines, and by stimulating the in- 
dustry, of our mechanics and manufacturers, by securing to 
them the home market for the sale of their products, against 
the undue competition of foreign pauper labor, so that they 
may speedily dispose of their fabrics, and thus, by quick re- 
turns, dispense with the necessity of large and overgrown cap- 
itals. There need be no fear of monopolizing. Ail experi- 
ence has shown that home competition is abundantly sufficient 
to secure every possible improvement in the art of manufactu- 
ring, and to bring down the price of manufactured goods to the 
lowest possible point at which they can be afforded. The his- 
tory of the cotton manufacture proves this beyond all question. 

To show the immense field we still have for extending- home 
industry, and to raise up a home inarkct for agricultural pro- 
ducts, let the folio wing facts be deeply pondered by every 
friend of his country: 

A report made to the British Parliament, not long since. 



179 

shows that the following are the amounts of British manufac- 
tures, consumed by the nations named, viz: 
Prussia, average for each person 7 cents. 

Russia, do 15 do. 

Denmark, do 17 do. 

France, do 20 do. 

United States, do 402 do. 

From the above table it appears that the United States con- 
sume of British manufactures, more than ticenty times the 
amount of any other nation, and nearly thirty times as much 
as Russia, a nation like ours, which has only recently devoted 
much attention to horns manufactures. 

If we had a similar table of the consumption of French 
goods, by the United States end other nations, we should prob- 
ably sec a no less unfavorable state of things, and the more to 
be regretted, as most of our imports from that country arc wines, 
brandies, and silks. Now, if we could reduce the consumption 
of the manufactures of these and all other foreign nations to 
twenty cents a head, or even fifty cents, by manufacturing for 
ourselves, instead of suffering those to manufacture for us, who 
refuse to take our bread and meat in turn, who can doubt that 
an immense increase in the home market would immediately 
result; causing to flourish not only the agricultural interest, 
and the mining interest; but every other interest in the com- 
munity. 

The agricultural interest would be benefitted in a two-fold 
manner: First, by the increased consumption of agricultural 
products, by the additional number of persons engaged in the 
various operations of mining, and in mechanical and manufac- 
turing pursuits, and the various employments connected there- 
with, such as the construction of buildings, &.c; and, second- 
ly, by a transfer of a considerable number of those, now en- 
gaged in agriculture, to other pursuits, thereby converting 
them from producers into consumers, and thus more nearly 
equalizing supply pnd demand-, and preventing such a glut in 
the market as will prove exceedingly injurious to the agricul- 
tural interest, by reducing prices below the standard of a fair 
remuneration for capital and labor expended. 

To show the vast amount of the internal trade of the Uni- 
ted States, I extract the following table from Niles' Register, 



180 

October, 1842, page 130. Allowing the trade of two-thirds 
of New York, one-hali of Ohio, the whole of Vermont, Michi- 
gan, and Wisconsin, to pass through the New York Canals, 
they would accommodate the trade of three millions of our 
population; but it is well known, however,. that a considerable 
portion of the trade of these States and Territory passes into 
Canada, by way of the lakes and the Welland canal. The 
trade of the canals will, therefore, probably not embrace more 
than two and a half millions of our population; yet it will be 
seen that the trade, passing through these canals, considerably 
exceeds the exports of the whole of the United States. The 
following facts are shown, by the table as I have here abridged 
it, giving, however, the whole substance. The exports are for 
the year ending 30th September, 1841, and the trade through 
the canals for the same year, as reported by the New York ca- 
nal commissioners : tons. 
By the United States Treasury tables, the ton- 
nage on American shipping, entering during 
the year, 1,631,909 
Do^ passing through New York canals 1,521,661 
Exports of the products of the forest 6,264^852 
Do. passing through New York canals 11,841,103 
Exports of products of animal and vegetable 

food, including rice 16,737,462 

Do. passing through New York canals 20,832,266 

Exports of flour alone 7,759,646 

Do. passing through New York canals 10,478,416 

Total exports of articles of domestic origin ex- 
ported in American vessels 82,569,389 
Value of all articles passing through New York 

Canals 92,202,929 

If we suppose the commerce, passing through New York ca- 
nals, to be equal to one-sixth of the whole internal commerce 
of the United States, then that commerce will amount to the 
sum of $553,217,574, avast sum, but less, it is believed, than 
the real amount of the internal commerce of the whole Un- 
ion. 

Household manufactures, though subordinate in degree, are 
in principle, entitled to the same consideration as those carried 
on upon a larger scale, by the use of machinery. Equally, 






181 

with the latter, do they add to the wealth of the country, pre- 
cisely as much as is equivalent, to the increased value, which 
is given to the raw material, by the application of domestic la- 
bor. In some respects, even more praise is due to this species 
of labor than any other, inasmuch as it gives a virtuous em- 
ployment to the fairest portion of our population, and, without 
which, a large part of the female sex would be destitute of the 
means of employing themselves usefully and profitably to the 
community. The entire value of this species of labor, may 
truly be considered as so much added to the general stock of 
wealth, besides the wholesome influence exercised upon the 
morals of society, which is even more important than the 
wealth thus created. Household manufactures should, there- 
fore, be encouraged by rendering this species of labor honora- 
ble, in the highest degree. Every stimulant, which a wise 
legislation can apply, should be liberally used for this purpose. 
The policy of increasing and enlarging the manufactures of 
the State, as far as the means are within our power, cannot b? 
doubted. Whatever tends to increase the wealth of the State 
will in a proportional degree, increase the wealth of the Un- 
ion, and, consequently, every argument which has been urged 
in favor of encouraging the manufactures of the nation, will 
equally apply to those of the State, so far as by appropriate 
State legislation, this can be effected. The power of the State, 
it must be admitted, is, in this respect, very limited, but, in 
co-operation with the General Government, much good may be 
done. 

In the first place, household manufactures should be encour- 
aged and stimulated, by premiums offered through the medium 
of the State, and county agricultural societies; and to this 
end, suitable appropriations should be made, to be applied under 
such general regulations as the law may prescribe. 

In the next place, the erection of the mast approriate ma- 
chinery for manufacturing hemp into cotton bagging, and other 
raw materials, (the product of agriculture,) such as wool, flax, 
silk, &c, into suitable fabrics, should be encouraged, by ex- 
empting all buildings, erected for this purpose, together with 
the machinery and appurtenances, from taxation for a consid- 
erable period. Similar buildings, and machinery, for manufac- 
turing cotton fabrics of all kinds, should likewise be exempt 

Q* 



182 

from taxation for a reasonable length of time. And the like 
exemption should be extended for the encouragement of such 
other manufactures as the Legislature, in its wisdom, may, 
from time to time, deem worthy of encouragement. The 
time during which the exemption should continue should be 
liberal, not less than ten years. Nothing can be lost by thus 
inducing capital, from abroad, to come among us, for perma- 
nent investment. For if it were not thus induced to come, 
we could levy no taxes upon it, and if we can induce its invest- 
ment, by ten years exemption from taxation, it will be a source 
of revenue at the expiration of the period of exemption; and, 
in the meantime, every year these factories are in operation^ 
they will be adding to our wealth, and will, moreover, exercise 
a wholesome influence upon our agriculture, by the consump- 
tion of its products. 

Investments of capital, for manufacturing purposes, may be 
advantageously encouraged, also, by granting long leases of 
water privileges, upon favorable terms, at the locks and dams, 
on the rivers now in the course of improvement. The en- 
couragement would be still more efficient, if the erections and 
machinery were wholly exempt from paying any rent for a pe- 
riod sufficiently long to enable these manufacturing establish- 
ments to get fairly under way. Establishments for manufac- 
turing purposes can afford no profit until they get into com- 
plete operation; there is, therefore, great propriety in subject- 
ing them to no burdens, on the part of the State, until they 
begin to yield seme remuneration for the capital and labor ex- 
pended. 

In addition to these modes of encouragement, the Legisla- 
ture ought, from time to time, as circumstances shall require, 
to press upon the National councils the urgent necessity of en- 
couraging agriculture, by raising up and firmly establishing 
an adequate home market, for not only the products of agri- 
culture, including those of the forest and the fisheries, but al- 
so of our iron, our lead, copper, and coal mines, which can be 
effectually done only by encouraging and protecting home in- 
dustry against the competition of the pauper labor of Europe. 
Appeals of this kind, if made in a patriotic spirit, and with 
that unanimity of sentiment, which, on this subject, prevails 
among our citizens, could not fail to have a most powerful in- 
fluence upon the National councils. 



183 

The tariff, now in operation, will probably be adequate to the 
protection and encouragement of the industrial pursuits of all 
classes of the community. But to render it effectual, in ac- 
complishing the objects proposed, it is essential that confidence 
in its permanency should be inspired, for without proper assu- 
rance, that the Government will continue the system which 
has been adopted, no one will be willing to invest capital, 
which may be utterly sunk by a change of policy, by our Na- 
tional councils. All that is now necessary is for the State Leo - - 
islatures, and the people everywhere, to use their utmost ef- 
forts to give firmness and stability to the system which has 
been adopted. If this be done, and such a regulation of the 
currency effected as shall give us a circulating medium, co-ex- 
tensive with the Union, and at all times convertible into o- ld 
and silver, and so regulated as to forbid sudden expansions and 
contractions, and so completely guarded as to prevent even the 
slightest apprehension of a suspension of specie payments, 
there would ensue a more steady and permanent prosperity 
than has ever been witnessed in this country. 






BREEDING HORSES FOR AGRICULTURAL PURPOSES.* 

The No. for June 1st offers premiums for the 1st and 2d 
best essays "on the subjects of breeding and rearing horses for 
agricultural purposes." The writers are laid under no res- 

*In the year 1839, Thomas B. Stephenson, Esq. editor of the Ken- 
tucky Farmer, a most intelligent and zealous friend of agriculture, of- 
fered premiums for the best and second best essays, on breeding and 
rearing horses for agricultural purposes. The above essay, and the 
one next succeeding, competed for the premiums. They were referred, 
by Mr. Stevenson, to Orlando Brown, Esq. who was requested to asso- 
ciate two gentlemen with himself, to decide on the merits of the essays . 
The following letter from Mr. Brown shows the result of the reference . 

Frankfort, Nov. 4th, 1839. 

Thomas B. Stevenson, Esq, — Sir: The essays, which were submit- 
ted to me, in conjunction with two other gentlemen to be selected by 
me, have been most carefully perused and considered. It was a diffi- 
cult matter to determine to which the preference should be awarded, 
Avhen both the essays were so distinguished for their merit, and for 
their beneficial public tendency. I selected, as my associates, Rob- 
ert W. Scott, Esq. and John Lewis, Esqr. These gentlemen ai-e well 
known to the agricultural community, and great confidence is justly 
reposed in their judgment. I had hoped that their concurrence in 
opinion would have rendered it unnecessary for me to decide, but even 
they differ, and when they do, I may well distrust my own conclu- 
sions. It is also strong evidence of the almost entire equality of mer- 
it in the two productions. Mr. Lewis and myself agree in awarding 
the superiority to the essay written by Mr. W. Williams, of Tennessee . 
Mr. Scott considers the one written by Mr. Beatty as preferable. We 
all concur in the opinion ..hat they are both eminently creditable to 
their authors, and that you confer lasting benefits upon the country 
in enlisting such able pens in behalf of its most valuable interests. 

Yours respectfully 

ORLANDO BROWN. 

Believing, from the favorable opinion expressed by Mr. Brown, 
that both essays would be useful, I have solicited and obtained per- 
mission from Mr Williams to include his essay, in conjunction with 
my own, in the volume which is now submitted to the public. The 
approbation of Mr. Stevenson, who generously offered and paid the 
premiums for these essays, for their publication", has been also obtain- 
ed. 



185 

trictions as to the mode of discussion, or the breeds they may 
choose to advocate. An agricultural paper could not be ex- 
pected to have been more liberal. A dissertation on the blood 
and proportions, the breeding, rearing and training the turf 
race-horse - T or the stouter built, not much less blood-like road- 
ster, hunter, or war-horse which the advance of modern times 
has introduced, might not have suited the tastes of a majority 
of your readers. You are aware, however, that by placing an 
interdict on the turf, the camp, the field, and the road, you 
damp the ardour of your writers, and strip the horse of his 
glory. The plough and cart horse is a mere utilitarian, and 
ploughing and carting, however the poets may have embellish- 
ed them in song, are known by the Workics to be plain fact 
matters, and effectually achieved by the due and continued ap- 
plication of bone and sinew. There evidently is no fancy in 
the affair to the man who holds the handle and guides the team. 
There is, however, ample room for the exercise of much practi- 
cal good sense in pointing out the best method of breeding, 
raising, breaking and working farming horses to the best ad- 
vantage. The profits of agricultural operations generally are 
moderate, and managed as they are in many instances loss is 
incurred. Most breeders of animals, it is apprehended, receive 
but a very inadequate compensation for their time and atten- 
tion and money expended. It ought not to be, and that it is 
does not result necessarily, but from the want of proper care 
and judgment in breeding and raising. They follow what has 
been, not inaptly called, the bap-hazard mode, by putting any 
sort of a female to any sort of a male without regard to quali- 
ties; and in raising they are so stinted and starved as to warp 
and destroy whatever little of good form and constitution, they 
may have accidently brought into the world with them. These 
seem to act without object, except that they knov*- a horse is a 
horse and a steer a steer, and that if the colt was got for a bar- 
rel of corn and the calf gratis, they have saved their 
money. 

The business of breeding animals, in modern times, is said 
to be a science. It has not been, however, and probably nev- 
er will be reduced to exactness. "Dame nature" in her ope- 
rations delights to display endless varieties. But certain rules 
have been laid down by the observance of which we may rea- 



186 

sonably expect to approximate certainty. "Like begets like" 
is the leading rule. It not only has its exceptions, but it must 
be understood with limitation. Select a horse and mare, such 
as you want, or as near as you can find, the produce of their 
conjunction may resemble the sire, or the dam, or neither; but 
it may have an intermediate form, or may take after some re- 
mote ancestor; and if the remote ancestors were indifferent, or 
positively bad, the chances will be against the rule, in propor- 
tion to the number of worthy progenitors. It should be en- 
joined on beginners, therefore, 1st, To select good animals to 
start upon, where no better evidence can be had: 2ndly, But 
where it can, to select them from good families. In England, 
where more attention has been paid to the breeding and rear- 
inn- the blood horse, than in any other country, thev have ar- 
rived at extraordinary size, and power and endurance; and it 
has been done by combining the Arab, Barb and Turk, and 
developing the bone and muscle of the new race by generous 
feed and judicious exercise. There no one thinks of breeding 
a racer from a mare who has not at least five pure crosses. 
And many of their most distinguished mares can number dou- 
ble the amount, landing on a royal, or other Arabian or Barb 
mare. There is something in the blood, that gives family dis - 
tinction, though the blood may not tell in particular individu- 
als, either from mismanagement, or accident, or from some de- 
fect in constitution or form. A third rule requires that they 
be crossed; in other words, that we avoid the coupling together 
near relatives. The more remote families, probably the bet- 
ter; but after prohibiting the intercourse of sire and daughter, 
brother and sister, beyond these we may probably be permitted 
to use our judgment in selecting the requisite forms. Some of 
the double Januses were very well proportioned, but they were 
very small. The double Archys evidently show a foiling off. 
But Wagner by Sir Charles out of a Marion is thought to be 
among the good ones. And we need not look for a better than 
Highflyer, his dam by Blank, got by Regulus, both sons of the 
Godolphin Arabian. 

There are some subordinate rules, that in the thorough bred 
studs, should be well considered. 1. Certain families cross 
better than others, all being good. 2d. Certain individuals 
cross better than other individuals. 3rd. And certain indi- 



187 

viduals breed better than other individuals. Herod and Eclipse 
were extraordinary racers and stallions, and were of good 
families, and they crossed well upon good families. But the 
union of their bloods was rather transcendent, and were we to 
select from the best of Eclipse's sons, we should take these — 
Bcnningbrough, Waxy and Gohanna, all out of Herod mares, 
and Hamiltonian, out of a Highflyer, a son of Herod. Sir 
Archy and Eclipse of Long Island are both good stallions, and 
their blood is thought to cress well, but the blood of Eclipse 
and Ratler, son of Sir Archy, "'nicks.'" These last rules are 
to be learned by practice only. Who can assign the reason 
why Roller's immediate descendants have not shown his worth? 
In them il^is measurably dormant, but it is shining with re- 
splendant lustre in Mingo and Job, of the second generations. 
And of Job it was hardly to have been expected as he com- 
bines an unsual proportion of Diomcdc and Sir Archy blood, 
being bred very much "in and in.*' 

The thorough bred horse, standing evidently and acknowl- 
edged! y in the first rank, and the rules for breeding and rais- 
ing him being "considered and freely understood," a. variety 
suited to a particular purpose is to be produced by considering 
the proportions wanted, and the families and individuals from 
which such properties are most likely to be inherited. Were 
the thorough breds equally numerous and bred and raised at 
the same or nearly the same cost, I would say without hesita- 
tion, and so would every one who understands his interest, put 
the thorough breds to work. Eclipse, or Ratler, or Tranby, or 
Mingo, or Job, if put to it in their prime, would have done 
more work than any inferior bred horses of their size. In 
June or July, blood will tell as promptly in the corn field as on 
the race course. My best breds always then take the lead. 
But the above, and such as the above, are not accessible to 
farmers generally. — The price forbids. What then is to be 
done? In this glorious land of liberty, every one, who has the 
means, does as he pleases, and only wish, I can scarcely hope, 
that some individuals or companies or agricultural societies 
would import a bay Turk, a bay Barb and a Cleveland bay, 
and a bay dray, or draught horse. The Cleveland bays are 
said to be almost uniformly of bay color and universally gentle 
in harness. I have seen a few matches from the north, appar- 



188 

ently half bred?, excellent in harness, of the desired size and 
shape. 

Draught horses, perhaps equal to any, might be had in Vir- 
ginia or Pennsylvania. The stock should all be selected by a 
competent judge of horse flesh, and the two coarser kinds 
should be chosen not only with a view to their own stoutness, 
but family stoutness and gentleness at work, and with a scruti- 
zing eye to their hoofs and pasterns. Brittle horn, gummy an- 
kles, or tendency to grease in the heals should be an insur- 
mountable objection to a horse however perfect in other res- 
pects. We would of course have to choose the temper of the 
Barbs and Turks, though a man thoroughly conversant with 
horses can from certain indications form a tolerably correct es- 
timate of their tempers. A person but moderately acquainted 
would be able to know that Belshazzar was quiet, and that St. 
Giles was "queer." The mares to be selected, should be well 
bred, of bay or brown colour and a few greys. They should 
have long heads, wide between the eyes, and jaws well display- 
ed, with clear placid eyes, and open foreheads,' well set ears, 
and fine muzzles and nostrils; necks of moderate length and 
muscular, with large detached windpipes; having quarters be- 
fore and behind with plenty of muscle; large bodies with 
large ribs, and the short ribs close to the hips; standing even 
and rather wide on legs, abounding in bone and sinew, and 
terminated by tough black hoofs. A white pastern and hoof 
is about as liable to disease as those of black or dark chesnut 
colour. The Stallions should be of similar shape, but more 
coarseness is tolerable in them, particularly about the neck. 
The mares above described of 15^ hands high or upwards 
should be put to the Barb and Turk, those under, to the Cleve- 
land bay. Those three crosses in the general would produce 
stock of sufficient size. The best of the colts should be kept 
for stallions. When a filly was deficient in size she should be 
put to the dray horse. The crossing and the result of each 
cross should be regularly recorded. If of very defective form 
she should not be permitted to breed, or be put to a Jack. If 
the male inherited the defect, it would not be perpetuated. 
And all the blind fillies, and those having defective eyes, 
should be put to a Jack, for a blind mule would be a curiosity. 
A colt thus bred might be kept as a coverer at about $10 the 



189 

price of the season of one mare. And where the blood had 
been diluted with the blood of the dray, at $7,50 or perhaps 
$5, which should be the minimum price. And I asked why 
the expense of importing a Barb and Turk should be incurred? 
It is answered, the Byerley Turk and the Curwen Bay Barb 
got a colt and filly the sire and dam of Partner, one of the 
best horses ever bred. He got Tartar, a capital one. He 
got Herod, the lasting properties of whose stock have probably 
never been equalled. He got Highflyer, who had no parallel 
in his day. He got Sir Peter, a good racer, and, as a stallion, 
without a parallel in his day. He transmitted his excellence 
to Haphazard; and he to Philho-da-puta; and he got Birming- 
ham, who, but for the inroads made on his constitution by bad 
management, might have perpetuated the family stoutness, 
Perhaps it may be done by Philip, who came of Treasurer, a 
daughter of Camillus, "whose stock were particularly neat and 
of great strength for their size." 

Having chosen the right sorts to cross, and thereby bringing on 
a new variety, the mode of raising them may be described in 
a short compass. The mares and horses should be in good 
health and condition, when put together. During the period 
of gestation the work to be done by the fermle should be mod- 
erate, and as she approaches the time of delivery the work 
should he suspended and her condition a little improved. The 
male should not probably be worked, but plenty of exercise 
should be given him regularly, and his powers should never be 
overtaxed. The foals, for the best, should never be dropped 
except when the grasses are plenty to increase the flow of milk, 
or, if the mares are to be worked after foaling, generous food 
should be given them in sufficient quantities. The young 
will learn to eat at three or four months old, and may be wean- 
ed at five or six. They should be sheltered from the inclem- 
encies of winter, and fed to keep them straight and growing, 
without being forced to precocious maturity, as is done in Eng- 
land, in the racing studs. The object of the. forcing system 
is to attain size and strength to enable them to contend in 
"their 3 year old form" for the high prizes. The Derby, the 
Oaks and St. Ledger stakes have great attractions for breeders 
and sportsmen; and are annually won, not always by the best 
colts and fillies, but are annually the means of destroying, or 

R 



190 

greatly impairing the value of many good ones. Nature 
would indicate that a horse should have attained full age be- 
fore he is put to his utmost exertions. Foals should be gen- 
tled immediately after their birth, and they rarely, perhaps 
never forget it. Yearlings also should be kept growing uni- 
formly in winter as in summer, and at 2 years old should be 
halter broke, and used moderately at three, increased in work 
at 4. and a filly at 5 will do full work, but a gelding not before 
six, perhaps 7. Very often, however, they nre broke down be- 
fore they are aged by improper management, and thereby sev- 
eral of the most valuable years of their lives are lost or ren- 
dered nearly useless. 

A few objections may be answered to enable us to come to 
a close. It is said that the skins of the well breds are fine 
and liable to chafe and gall. The gear should be made to fit, 
be of good quality and kept soft and pliant. It is objected 
against the breds, that they are bad tempered, and restive, and 
unmanageable. The objection applies not generally, but to a 
part, and a small part only. The finest, and the best temper- 
ed, and altogether the best carriage horse I ever saw, was a 
Pacolet out of a Spread Eagle. And as to the restive, begin 
with them young and learn them obedience by times, and keep 
them obedient. If they are suffered to run wild till four or 
five years old you should expect trouble, unless you could em- 
ploy a "whisperer.*' I had a filly whose sire had a decidedly 
bad temper, and her dam's sire was equally vicious. She was 
worked tolerably well at three years old, but was injured 
so much by another team that she was turned out for the sea- 
son, and the next year refused. She bred me a filly, sold 
for the saddle, and a colt, that works kindly, before I sold her, 
and a better roadster than her is rarely to be seen. I had 
two fillies full bred. The one was put to work at three 
years old and worked kindly. The other was a splendid crea- 
ture, that I used under the saddle; but on one occasion and 
without requiring her work, but rather to see whether she 
would woik, I put her to the plough. As she did not like it, 
and fearing she might be injured, I ordered her stripped. I 
have latterly worked a full bred of the same family; and an- 
other thorough bred in the wagon, merely to see that they 
would work, and they are now both valuable brood mares, 
the thorough bred a splendid mare, and has a splendid filly. 



BREEDING HORSES FOR AGRICULTURAL PURPOSES. 

The breeding and rearing of horses, (he best adapted to ag- 
ricultural purposes, is a subject of deep interest to the whole 
community. Whilst the improvement of race horses has at- 
tracted great attention, the more important suljcct of produ- 
cing those best adapted to farming purposes, has, comparative- 
ly, been much neglected. The offering of premiums, to en- 
courage this latter object, affords a strong indication, that a 
more wholesome practice is about to spring up in the country. 
Certainly no subject is more worthy the attention of State 
Agricultural Societies. The United States must always con- 
tinue to be an eminently agricultural country. It is of ths 
utmost importance, therefore, that we should acquire, and per- 
petuate, a race of horses the best adapted to farming purposes. 
And a hope may be indulged, now that the suljcct has enga- 
ged the attention of the State Agricultural Society,* that the 
great desideratum — the most perfect breed of horses, adapted 
to agricultural purposes — will be attained. 

The qualities, necessary toconstitute a good farm horse, are 
the following — a sfood constitution; gentleness, and evenness of 
temper; docility; steadiness of movement; capacity to endure 
steady and constant labor; great muscular power; durability; 
hardiness, and easy to be kept in order, with moderate feeding. 

*At the moment of writing, Judge Beatty was under the impression 
that the premiums for essays on breeding and rearing horses for ag- 
ricultural purposes, were offered by the Stat© Agricultural Society ; 
nor did he discover his errov till the after manuscript had been 
forwarded for publication. The premiums were offered by the Frank- 
lin Farmer. — Ed. Fr. Farmer. 



192 

These qualities, accompanied with a tolerable quick and active 
walk, will constitute a most valuable animal for agricultural 
purposes. The agricultural society which shall be instrumen- 
tal in giving us a breed of horses, possessing these qualities, in 
aneminent degree, will have rendered the country a most im- 
portant service, and secured to itself a high standing in the 
lists of fame. The leading object of this essay is to suggest 
the probable means of attaining this great desideratum. 

No country has paid more attention to the improvement of 
the breed of horses than England. In that country "there are 
two principal breeds of horses, the race or blood kind, and the 
cart, plough, or team sort." The latter kind "is chiefly useful 
in the business of cultivating the soil." There are four princi- 
pal varieties used for that purpose — "the improved black cart- 
horse; the Suffolk punch horse-, the Cleaveland bay horse, and 
the Clydesdale horse." The first is the dray breed, "being, 
in point of size, larger than any others in the Kingdom." 
These are said to be "inactive and slow in their movements, 
besides being clumsy, and not unfrequently badly proportion- 
ed." In England they are thought to be "more adapted to 
heavy drafts upon paved roads or streets than for the purpose 
of ploughing and harrowing the ground, or any other descrip- 
tion of plain labor." And accordingly are mostly used "in 
drawing of drays, and other sorts of heavy work in large towns." 
For general farming purposes this breed certainly cannot be 
recommended. 

The second variety is the Suffolk punch horse. These, when 
of the genuine kind, are much better adapted to farming pur- 
poses than the dray breed. They are said to be "a short plain 
looking horse, though very compact, and very active and har- 
dy." They are of smaller size than either the dray breed y 
or Cleaveland bay horse, and generally about fifteen hands 
high. 

The third variety is the Cleaveland bay horse. They are 
said to be "generally clean and well made in most of the parts, 
being very strong and active, answering perfectly both for the 
team$ coach, and saddle." That "there are few horses capable 
of greater, or longer continued exertion, in any of these inten- 
tions, than these." 

The fourth variety, or Clydesdale horse, is said to be "a 



193 

strong, active, steady animal, generally from fifteen to sixteen 
and a half hands high, and probably, for the purposes of the 
cart and plough, inferior to few in this country." (England.) 

The Clydesdale horse is described, by a modern writer, "as 
lighter in the body than the Suffolk punch, and more elegantly 
formed, in all respects. His limbs are clean and sinewy, his 
neck longer, his head of a finer form, and his eye more spright- 
ly and animated than in either of the two former kinds. His 
tread is firm, though tending towards the nimble; and he is ca- 
pable of exerting a wonderful degree of muscular strength 
for a short push, without being hurt by it, which makes him 
particularly valuable for a hill country, where there is a neces- 
sity for calling forth such exertions, on innumerable occasions. 
He is hardy; can live upon any kind of food, and is, perhaps, 
the thriftiesthoi'se for the cart, or the plough that is to be found 
in the Island, perhaps on the globe itself. For these purposes 
he is peculiarly adapted by the evenness of his temper, and 
the steadiness of his movements. For the plough he is perhaps 
etrtry thing that could be wished, being, in point of size, nei- 
ther so large, nor so unwieldy as to render him a burthen to the 
soil. Two of these horses, in the softest soil, under good man- 
agement, being perfectly able to draw a full furrow with ease; 
and for horse hoeing, or ploughing a light soil, in good order. 
one of the lightest sort performs the work with alacrity and 
ease.'' 1 

The foregoing extracts, from English writers, show that 
each of the three last varieties possesses valuable qualities for 
farming purposes; but the Clydesdale sort, probably, possesses 
more of the qualities, necessary to constitute a good farm horse, 
than either of the others. But to avail ourselves filly of the 
experience of England, on this subject, we ought to carry out 
the recommendation of the writer, from whom I have quoted 
largely above. "What a benefit (says he) would result to the 
nation were a set of judicious experiments to be conducted, 
for a sufficient length of time, for the purpose of ascertaining 
the comparative powers and expense of ke ping, of these last 
three different varieties of horses, so that any one might know, 
who chose it, with certainty, the profit or the loss that would 
result to him from employing the one or the other, for any par- 
ticular purpese that he had in view." Whether this valua- 

R* 



194 

ble suggestion has ever been carried out, in England, the wri- 
ter of this essay has not learned, but certain it is, if it could 
be acted upon, in the United States, by importing several of the 
best of the three varieties, both male and female, and thus as- 
certain, .by actual experiment, which of the varieties possess, 
in the highest degree, the greatest number of qualities neces- 
sary to form a complete farm horse, the agriculturists of the 
country would derive incalculable benefits from the experiment. 
Let our State Agricultural Societies then, give an impetus to 
public sentiment on this subject, by offering separate premiums 
to any person, who shall first import a pair of either of the 
three varieties. Although the premium may not be large, it 
will nevertheless have the desired effect. The importer will 
look to the profit he will make by standing the imported ani- 
mal, to indemnify him for his outlay and risk rather than to the 
premium. The very circumstance of the imported horse be- 
ing a premium importation would draw business that would be 
certain to insure a reasonable profit. 

The three varieties are ail valuable. Experience would test 
which of them is most so. And the Agricultural Society, 
which shall be instrumental in securing to the farmers of the 
United States the benefits of such experience, will be entitled 
to their lasting gratitude. In laying the foundation of a good 
stock of farm horses, it is necessary to attend to, not only the 
breed, but the form also. Whatever breed may be selected, 
(he horse should iiave "the following shapes of the different 
parts. The head, as small as the proportions of the animal 
will admit; the nostrils expanded, with a fine muzzle; the eyes 
cheerful and prominent; the ears sm ill, upright and placed 
near together; the nccl-, rising out from between the shoulders, 
with an easy tapering curve, should join gracefully to the head; 
the shoulders, being well thrown back, should also fall into the 
neck, at what is termed the points, without being perceived, 
which probably facilitates the going much more than the nar- 
row shoulder; the arm, or fore thigh, should be muscular, ta- 
pering from the shoulder, so as to meet a fine, straight, sinewy,, 
and long leg; ihe hoof, circular and wide at the heel; the 
chest, deep and full at the girth; the loin or fillets, broad 
and straight; the body, round; the hips, or hocks by no means- 
wide, but the quarters long, and the tail set on so as to be near- 



195 

ly on the same right line as the back; the thighs strong and 
muscular; the legs, clean and fine boned, the bones of them 
not round but flat, or what is frequently termed lathy." 

The form and qualities of the brood mare should also be 
attended to. They "should always be well shaped in their 
different parts; be possessed of a large carcase, in proportion 
to their heights, being pretty full in their bellies, and appear- 
ing likely to form good nurses, and have plenty of milk. The 
disposition ought to be gentle and tractable, the constitution 
healthy and vigorous, free from blemish of any kind.'" The 
horse should be "of a kindly disposition; tho constitution 
strong and healthy; the temper good, and wholly free 
from any sort of vice and contamination, as upon the good 
properties and healthy condition of the parents, in a great 
measure, depend the future utility and advantnge of their off- 
spring. "Since general experience has fully shown, that in 
what relates to iho form and other good, qualities in the prog- 
eny, more depends on the mare than the horse, the usual prac- 
tice of regarding the horse more than the mare is highly im- 
proper." "Theform and other properties of the horse should 
always have as much similarity as possible to those of the mare, 
as in this way their joint properties may be more rcasonably 
expected in the young, which they produce, than by violent, 
unnatural crossing." 

The best colts aie said to be produced from mares "not 
above seven years old, or eight at the utmost." They "may 
be put to the horse when three years old, but it is a better 
practice to defer it a year or two longer " The principle that 
what relates to form and other good qualities in the progeny 
depends more upon the mare than the horse, is strongly illus- 
trated in a brood mare, owned by the author of this essay. She 
possesses, in an eminent degree, all the qualities of constitu- 
tion, size, form and disposition necessary to constitute a most 
valuable farm horse, and her colts partake in a very striking 
manner of all her good qualities. If the author of this essay 
could be so fortunate as to meet with a horse possessing the 
like qualities, he would entertain a sanguine hope of produ- 
cing a domestic race of farm horses of a most valuable sort. 

With proper care and attention, in selecting from our do- 
mestic stock mares of good constitution, size, form and dispo- 



19G 

sition, and breeding them to large horses, of good constitution, 
and similar form and disposition, great improvement would 
doubtless be made; and in time, by perseverance and strict at- 
tention, as perfect a race of farm horses could be produced 
here as have been reared in England. But we should doubt- 
less expedite the process of improvement by commencing with 
a. stock already much improved. 

After we shall have obtained a good stock to commence 
with, the next consideration is how that stock is to be managed 
so as to perpetuate, nncl, if possible, improve its good qualities. 
The crossing of different breeds, with a view to improvement, 
l< so much the fashion of the day, that it is necessary to guard 
against a practice, which, in the general, does much more 
harm than good. It has been seen, that the form and other 
properties of the horse should always have as much similarity 
as possible to those of the mareP Even their dispositions 
should harmonize. It is thus, only, that we can reasonably ex- 
pect their offspring to possess the like good qualities. But 
where there is an unnatural crossing of breeds, with little re- 
gard to disposition, or other harmonizing good qualities, can 
we reasonably expect any thing better than the deterioration 
of the breed. 

I am strongly inclined to believe, that entirely too much 
stress has been laid upon the necessity of crossing the breed, 
in order to the improvement of slock. "The crossing of dif- 
ferent, breeds so as to supply the imperfections and defects of 
one, by the merits and perfections of the other," may be prac- 
tised to advantage when you have a female stock of inferior 
quality, the offspring of which you desire to improve, by breed- 
ing from a male of better quality. But when you have a 
stock of the improved kind, both males and females, if crossed 
with a different breed, unless it be done with great judgment, 
you will be more likely to deteriorate than to improve your 
breed. 

It is generally believed that by breeding in and in, or in the* 
same line or family, the best stock will deteriorate.. The 
truth of this theory has been greatly shaken by the practice 
of Mr. Bakewell, one of the most successful breeders in Eng- 
land. His practice was "to unite the valuable qualities or 
perfections of the same kinds, by continuing to breed, and se~ 



197 

lecting the most perfect animals in the same line or family." 
Mr. Bakewell was completely successful in "rearing his best 
stock by the nearest affinities, not only without degeneracy in 
any respect whatever, but with a continued improvement and 
amelioration" It is remarked also that "cattle in the wild 
state, in particular situations, remain for centuries without the 
least alteration taking place in their form, or change in their 
color or other properties. In Spain the owners of Merino 
flocks "have continued to breed from the same stock, without 
any attention to consanguinity, for many centuries. Yet it is 
to this country the world is indebted for the finest race of sheep 
upon the globe. In Sweden a contrary practice prevails. But 
in Rees' Encyclopaedia, article Sheep, this is said to arise from 
a prejudice against breeding "in and in," and that "the practice 
is useless, when the ram?, upon an estate, are already of a 
good quality; if the contrary were the case, there could not 
exist a perfect Merino sheep in Spain, as these sheep have con- 
tinued to breed from the same stock, without any attention to 
consanguinity, for many centuries. 

If Mr. Bakewell's theory shall be found, upon fuller enqui- 
ry, to be correct, there will be much less difficulty in propaga- 
ting, without deterioration, any particular breed of horses, 
which may be imported from England. But if breeding, by 
near affinities, shall be found to be attended with injurious ef- 
fects, the evil may be avoided, without going into entirely new 
families. Distant branches of the same family, or stock may 
be resorted to rather than contaminate the blood by mixing 
with a strange race. 

The value or utility of blood for work horses, is the sub- 
ject of much contrariety of opinion. Experience has shown, 
in England, that the three varieties, upon which I have remar- 
ked, are the best adapted to farming purposes. But we cannot 
say, that no portion of the blood of these varieties is derived 
from the Arabian, or English blooded horse. There is, in all 
probability, some mixture of the different races; and from that 
mixture the good qualities, in part at least, of these varieties 
may have arisen.. VYe cannot pronounce, therefore, that no 
advantage is to be derived from a cross with the blooded stock. 
But if we have already a race of horses, improved by the 
proper crosses, so as to adapt them admirably to ail the purpo- 



198 

ses of agriculture, is it not the part of practical wisdom to 
adopt that race, and to endeavor to improve thereon, if 
susceptible of farther improvement, rather than to commence 
anew? Experience has shown, both in England and America, 
that horses of the pure and unmixed blood, though very suita- 
ble for racing, are not the best adapted to farming purposes. 
It would be a work of supererogation to undertake to assign 
the reasons why it is.so. Experience is the best of all rea- 
sons, and we may well be satisfied with that guide, without at- 
tempting to explore the philosophical causes. 

Having presented my views as to the particular variety of 
horses, best adapted to farming purposes, I will now proceed to 
make some remarks upon the most suitable method of rearing 
them. This may be explained in two words, shelter and 
good feeding. The protection of any kind of stock from win- 
ter rains and snow has been found to conduce very much to 
their health and thriftiness. Surely it cannot be less so for 
the horse kind than for other stock. If mares and colts, and 
the young stock of horses were protected from the falling weath- 
er, during the cold months of the winter and spring, it would 
greatly aid in keeping them in good plight. If thus protected 
from the falling weather, it is no disadvantage, but on the con- 
trary, is beneficial to suffer them to run at large, even in the 
coldest weather, and when the ground is covered with snow. 
This affords them wholesome exercise, and tends to render 
them hardy. All animals attain their growth much more rap- 
idly, and acquire better size, when kept constantly in good 
plight, and thriving condition, than when stinted in their food. 
Great care should therefore be used in keeping not only the 
mares, but the young stock of horses, constantly in good plight, 
and thrifty condition. This can best be accomplished by shel- 
ter and good feeding, during that period of the year, when 
there is a scarcity of pasturage. Good rich pastures are all 
important for brood mares, and the young stock of horses. 
And they should have a full supply of these, during as large a 
proportion of the year as possible. To this end it is impor- 
tant to keep in reserve a due proportion of blue grass pasture 
for winter use, for mares and the young stock of horses. 
These should not be suffered to be grazed after the second 
growth of grass commences. U the season is favorable, this 



199 

will happen early in July. But in dry seasons the young 
grass is later in springing up. The judicious farmer will 
therefore be governed by circumstances, always taking care 
to take off his stock too soon rather than too late. Pastures 
thus reserved, if the season is favorable, will furnish much 
winter feeding. 

Rye pastures, during the winter and spring months, may al- 
so be used to great advantage, in aid of blue grass pastures. 
It' sowed early in September, and the season is reasonably fa- 
vorable, it will afford much winter pasture, and may also be pas- 
tured in the spring till the middle of April, and still produce a 
good crop of grain to be fed off to stock. 

It is n jf»always convenient to furnish shelter to young horses, 
while running on pasture, during the winter months. I would 
suggest the following as the most convenient and economical 

bo CT 

method of doing so. Let a shelter of suitable length and 
about twenty feet wide be framed on stout locust posts, set in 
the ground, in a permanent blue grass pasture, reserved for 
horse stock, entirely open at the sides, to the height of six 
feet, but enclosed at the end with plank. The roof may be 
made of straw, clapboards, or other cheap material. A situa- 
tion should be selected which would afford the means of con- 
ducting the water eff each wav; and the dirt or floor, under 
cover, should be a little raised. A trough or troughs should be 
extended from end to end, under the middle of the shelter, and 
so high that stock could not easily jump over them. A crib 
for holding corn and other food should adjoin one end, with a 
door opening under the shelter, and one at the opposite end 
for throwing in corn. A granary for oats, &c. might be made 
on one side of the door, opening under the shelter. Under 
this shelter the stock should be plentifully salted, and moderate- 
ly fed, so as to accustom them to resort to the shelter. If the 
rye pasture do not adjoin the lot in which the shelter is erected, 
the stock should be removed there during bad weather and 
again shifted to the*rye when the weather is favorable. If from 
a scarcity of pasture the young stock should need hay, a rack 
should be made of rails, convenient to the shelter, and large 
enough to hold a wagon load, which should be filled as occa- 
sion might require. These hints, aided by the experience cf 
the judicious farmer, will be sufficient to secure proper atten- 



200 

tion and care to young horse stock, during the inclement sea- 
son of the year. During the milder portion it will only be ne- 
cessary to furnish the young stock with an abundance of rich 
pasture, plenty of salt, and a constant supply of water. And 
even during the winter months, if rye and blue grass pasture is 
abundant, only light feeding with grain will be necessary. 

If the pasture shall not exist in sufficient abundance for all 
the stock, mares that are suckling colts, should be first supplied, 
for it is very important that these should be well provided with 
rich pasture to make them give plenty of milk for their colts. 
The first season is the most important in rearing horses. Du- 
ring that period the colts should always have a full supply of 
suitable food. At weaning time the colts should be put on 
fresh rye or blue grass pasture, and fed with oats, or corn, 
chopped rye, &c. and to make them feed well, the mares 
ought to be fed with their colts a short time before weaning. 
They should have a full supply of rye pasture during the win- 
ter succeeding their weaning, besides being fed with oats, &,c. 
Thus they will attain a considerable growth the first year, and 
will be much easier kept in thrifty condition the succeeding sum- 
mer and winter, and indeed until they arrive at maturity. 

N. B. To save the trouble of frequent references, I have 
omitted stating the authorities from which the numerous ex- 
tracts are taken which are quoted in this essay. They will be 
found in the American edition of Dr. Rees' New Encyclopce- 
dia, articles horse, mare, sheep, breeding, &c. 



NATURE OF SOILS AND THE MEANS OF RENDERING THEI 

FERTILE, 

Letter to Thomas B. Stevenson, Esq. corresponding Secreta- 
ry of the Kentucky Agricultural Society, on the nature of 
soils, and the means of rendering them fertile, February 
1841* 

My Dear Sir: It is time I should make an effort to redeem 
the pledge I gave you, at your request, to address you on the 
important subject of agriculture. You were so kind as to 
limit me to no particular branch of that important science, of 
course the wide extended field of husbandry is open for my 
selection. In a correspondence upon so extensive a subject, 
you must expect me to be somewhat desultory, and not very 
methodical. 

The subject which I have selected for the commencement 
of our correspondence, is one of great importance. It is in re- 
lation to the deteriorated condition of a large portion of the 
naturally fertile soil of Kentucky. In pointing out the cause 
of this lamentable state of things, and the appropriate reme- 
dy, I do not intend to write a regular treatise on the subject, 
but to present some general views, which, though not presen- 
ted in detail, will readily enable you to see the force and bear- 
ing, and importance of my suggestions. 

There are some nine or ten earths enumerated bv chemists. 



*This, and the three following letters, were addressed to Mr. Ste- 
venson, after he had ceased to be the editor of the Kentucky Farmer, 
and were intended as a part of a private correspondence, on agri- 
cultural subjects, but having, shortly afterwards, resumed the editor- 
ship of that agricultural journal, he deemed them worthy of being 
communicated to the public. These letters were written before the 
author had an opportunity of consulting Liebig's important work, on 
Organic Chemistry, which has thrown much additional light on this 
subject, as will be seen by reference to several previous notes, 

S 



202 

Of these three only seem to be essential to the formation of a 
good soil. Those are lime (carbonate) sand and clay. If 
either of these ingredients are wanting, in a soil, it is defect- 
ive in its constitution, and the foundation of all improvement 
is to remedy that defect. This must be done by furnishing a 
due proportion of each of the ingredients. Thus if there be 
too much sand, clay must remedy the evil. If there be too 
much clay, the remedy is to be sought in the application of 
sand or calcarious earth, or both. And if the latter ingredi- 
ent be wanting, it is indispensably necessary that it should be 
supplied, before we can expect a well constituted soil. But 
as it is believed our naturally fertile lands in Kentucky, have 
all the necessary ingredients to constitute a good soil, so far as 
relates to its constitution, I need not enlarge on this subject. 
If then the constitution of our soil is good, what is necessary 
to render it fertile and productive ? The answer is, that it must 
be furnished with those substances which constitute the food 
of plants. Without being furnished with this food the best 
constituted soils would be perfectly barren. You will, of 
course, understand me to speak of a total absence of all these 
substances, which properly coustitute the food of plants. In 
general, when we speak of soils, we include not only the earths 
of which they are composed, but also of the animal and vege- 
table matters combined with them. I wish to be understood, 
when speaking of the constitution of soils, as having refer- 
ence only to the earths of which they are composed. Animal 
and vegetable substances, which constitute the appropriate 
food of plants, are the enriching matters of the soil; but, un- 
like the earths, they are not of a permanent nature, because 
the growing crops are constantly extracting them from the 
soil for their nourishment. The earths serve as a support for 
the growing plants, a place to stand in, and as a receptacle for 
their food, and to assist in assimilating and digesting it to the 
nature of the growing crops, but it is just as essential to fur- 
nish food to the earth for the use of plants, as it is to furnish 
food to the stomach for the sustenance of animals. The on- 
ly difference is, that the earth or soil is capable of receiving 
and laying up a store of food in anticipation for a number of 
years. But if no new supply be furnished, the growing crop 
lyill in time, exhaust the whole store which has been laid up, 



203 

when the soil will, of course, become unproductive till a new 
supply shall be furnished. It is true the entire stock of food 
laid up in a good soil can never be entirely consumed, because, 
before this is done the growing crops will be so feebly 
supported, and receive so little nourishment as to produce a 
crop not sufficient to pay for cultivating the ground, and hence 
it will become necessary to turn it out to rest, when it will, by 
slow degrees, receive a new supply of food, and may again, af- 
ter a number of years, be brought into cultivation. The rich 
soils of Kentucky had a vast stock of foodhid up before they 
were brought into cultivation, and hence it was a long time 
before this stock of food was so far exhausted as to render land 
too unproductive for profitable cultivation. The vast fertility 
of our rich virgin soils induced many of our early settlers to 
believe it would be impossible to exhaust them, and hence the 
improvidence with which they were cultivated. Experience 
has, however, shown that they were under a misapprehension 
on this subject. And it is now easy to perceive, when the true 
principles of agriculture are better understood, why it is that 
some of our richest lands produce so much less than they for- 
merly did. There has been no change in the constitutional 
ingredients of our soil, but we have exhausted, to a considera- 
ble extent, the foodfor plants, whicli we origin illy found in it; 
and we have now only to replenish it, until the stock of food 
shall bd equal to what it was when cur lands were first clear- 
ed, in order to restore it to its primitive fertility. 

It may not be improper here to show the manner in which 
soils acquire a superabundant supply of foodfor plants. At 
first view it might seem as if the growth of vegetable matter 
upon any soil, would always extract from it as much food for 
its nutriment as it could possibly restore to it, even when left 
to decompose upon the ground on which it grew. Indeed it 
might even seem as if less were restored to the soil than had 
been extracted from it, because in the process of decomposi- 
tion, a part of the ingredients, which constitute the food of 
plants, always escapes in the form of gas; and hence it would 
seem to follow, that a continual deterioration of soil would re- 
sult from the growing of any plants upon a soil, even when 
the whole were suffered to remain and decompose on the 
ground on which they grew. Experience shows that such is 



204 

not the fact, and I will iiovv proceed to state why it is not so. 
Upon a careful decomposition of vegetable matters, they are 
found to be composed of oxygen, hydrogen, and carbone, and 
in most plants of nitrogen also. These together with animal 
matters, alkalies and a few other ingredients constitute 
the appropriate food of plants. There are some other 
substances that very slightly enter into the composition 
of plants, but it is not necessary for my purpose to 
enumerate them here.* The great source of food for plants 
is then derived from the following elementary princi- 
ples; oxygen, hydrogen, carbon and nitrogen. These are all 
furnished to soils in a greater or less degree, by decaying ani- 
mal and vegetable matter, and by putrescent manures; but if 
these were the only sources of supply, I have already shown 
that they would not restore to the soil as great a quantity of 
the ingredients, which furnish food for plants, as the growing 
vegetables extract from it. And hence there is a necessity 
for a supply from some other source. 

I will endeavor, in my next letter, to show that the atmos- 
phere is the great source from which the additional supply of 
food is to be obtained, and the means by which it is most boun- 
tifully furnished, if we will but do our part to obtain it, and ap- 
ply it to agricultural purposes. I must, however, for the pres- 
ent, close with a request that you will aid me by such judicious 
reflections, as I know you are capable cf making upon the im- 
portant subject I have taken in hand. 



*Much light has been thrown upon this subject, since the above 
was written. It is now ascertained, that in addition to the organic 
substances, named above, the following inorganic substances also fur- 
nish appropriate food for plants. Potash, Soda, Sulphuric acid, 
Phosphoric acid, Chlorine, Oxide of iron, Oxide of Manganese, and 
that even a small portion of the earth's are consumed by plants, such 
as lime Allumnia, Silica, and Magnesia. 



FOOD FOR PLANTS, AND WHENCE DERIVED. 
Letter to same, Dated, February 10th, 1841. 

Dear SfR : I stated in my last letter, that oxygen, hydro- 
gen, carbon, and nitrogen were the elementary principles, 
which constituted the essential food of plants. Sir H. Davy, 
(p. 40) states that the three first, "indifferent proportions, gen- 
erally alone, but in some few cases combined with azote" (ni- 
trogen) compose the most essential ingredients in vegetable 
matter. But these elementary substances are always found, 
upon analyzing vegetable matter, in a compound state, form- 
ing farina, gluten, sugar, jelly, albumen, &c. all of which are 
composed, in different proportions, of the above named ele- 
ments. 

It may be proper hereto mention, that a very minute quan- 
tity of several of the earths enter into the composition of some 
vegetables. These are doubtless derived from the earths in 
which they grow, and are probably intended to give firmness 
to the vegetable fibre; and some of them seem also to contrib- 
ute to the vigorous growth of plants, either by stimulating 
them in acquiring their appropriate food, or by suitably prepa- 
ring it for them. Some other substances also enter into the 
composition of vegetables, which, in a greater or less degree, 
contribute to their food. Such are the alkalies, or their com- 
pounds, saline compunds, metalic oxides, sulphur, &.c. but nev- 
ertheless the great source of supply of vegetable food must be 
referred to the four elementary principles mentioned above, 
to wit: oxygen, hydrogen, carbon and nitrogen. I low far veg- 
etables are capable of drawing these elementary principles 

from their state of combination in the atmosphere, and assimi- 

S* 



206 

lating them as appropriate food, has not yet been fully investi- 
gated, but that they are capable of doing so, to a considerable 
extent, has been clearly demonstrated. Jones in his conver- 
sations on chemistry, (p. 178-9) says, organized bodies are 
"distinguished by the possession of that unknown principle 
called life, a principle from which the various organs derive the 
power of exercising their respective functions. That these 
organs "select and arrange those constituent principles, and 
form tlicm'mto different kinds of juices and solids, which con- 
stitute vegetable and animal substances, in all their varieties.'" 
Sir H. Davy, (p. 12,) says, "The soil is the laboratory in 
which the food is prepared." A variety of facts are adduced 
to favor the correctness of these propositions, to some of which 
I shall have occasion to refer. 

Water, it is well known, is essential to the growth of vege- 
tation. I have not mentioned it as a specific food of plants, 
because it is only a combination of two of the elements, (oxy- 
gen and hydrogen,) already mentioned as such. Water is not 
only important as furnishing two of the elementary ingredi- 
ents which enter into the food of plants, but there are a variety 
of other important elements, mingled with it, which are thus 
also furnished as their appropriate food. 

Jones in his conversations on chemistry (p. 134) says, "wa- 
ter is capable of absorbing all the gasscs, some of them in ve- 
ry minute, and others in very large proportions. Water is a 
solvent of more substances than any other fluid. Hence we 
rarely or never find it pure in nature, as it dissolves a portion 
many minerals, over which it passes in the bowels of the 
earth." He states in another place, that "one pint of water 
will dissolve thirty-three pints of Sulphurous gas." The same 
author shows that it will absorb nitrate of lime, carbonate of 
potash, nitrous oxide, sulphurated hydrogen gas, ritric acid, 
and a small portion of lime. Sir II. Davy has shown tint 
even distilled water Contains "saline impregnations;" and that 
if plants were supplied, in an unlimited manner, with distilled 
water, it would furnish them a number of different substances 
for their nutriment, (p. 81.) Now if even distilled water is ca- 
pable of furnishing a number of ingredients, as food for plants, 
besides those composing its own proper elements, it is manifest 
its capacity, when not distilled, would be much greater. 



207 

The atmospheric air is another medium from which food for 
plants is obtained. It is composed of oxygen and ni- 
trogen, two of the elements appropriate for food of plants. 
Carbonic acid gas which contributes a large proportion of the 
food of plants, is mingled with the atmosphere in the propor- 
tion of one part in fifty. "Carbonic acid gas is formed in a va- 
riety of processes of fermentation and combustion, and in the 
respiration of animals, and yet (Sir H. Davy remarks) no 
other process is known in nature, by which it can be consumed, 
except vegetation." He farther remarks "it is known by va- 
rious researches, that the constitution of the atmosphere has 
been always the same since the time that it was first accu- 
rately analyzed." Thus it appears, that although large quan- 
tities of carbonic acid gas is continually forming, the quantity, 
mingled with the atmosphere always remains about the same. 
The cause of this is explained both by Mr. Jones and Sir II. 
Davy. It is owing to the fact, that vegetables, by means of 
their leaves, absorb carbonic acid gas, during the day, and per- 
spire oxygen gas. It is true the contrary process takes place 
at night, when oxygen gas is absorbed and carbonic acid gas 
is given out. But as this does not take place to near so great 
on extent, there must be a constant supply of carbon as food 
to the growing vegetation from the atmosphere. This is a 
most important fact, and should the more engage our special 
attention, as the supply of food fur plants, from this source, 
depends very much upon the proper management of the agri- 
culturist. 

The foregoing remarks will, perhaps, be sufficient, without 
going more at large into the subject, to satisfy you that much 
of the food of plants is derived from the water which fails upon 
the earth, and which, by its solvent power, carries to the roots 
of growing vegetables, those ingredients which are suitable 
for their nourishment. That much is also derived from the 
carbonic acid gas, mingled with the atmosphere, and from the 
continued exhalations of this gas from decomposing vegeta- 
tion ; from combustion and the respiration of animals. Sir H. 
Davy expresses the opinion, that nitrogen, under certain cir- 
cumstances, is also absorbed by growing plants from the at- 
mosphere. 

When we take into consideration the facts herein stated, I 



208 

think there cannot be a doubt that growing vegetables, of eve- 
ry kind, derive a large proportion of their nutriment from the 
atmosphere, partly from the water it furnishes, and partly from 
the elements of which it is composed, and the various foreign 
ingredients mingled with it. 

If I am correct in these views, we may easily see the rea- 
son why a soil, in general, will become richer by restoring to 
it every thing which grows upon it, notwithstanding the loss of 
the food of plants by various exhalations. This principle is 
well calculated to encourage the husbandman to exert all his 
powers to keep up the fertility of his land, which he can easily 
do by using those means which a bountiful creator has placed 
within his reach. 

In a future letter I will endeavor to show how this is to be 
accomplished. 

P. S. The references to Sir H. Davy are in Mr. Ruf- 
fin's edition of his work on agricultural chemistry. 







THE MEANS OF RECLAIMING AND PRESERVING THE FERTIL- 
ITY OF SOILS. 

Letter to same, dated February 15th, 1344. 

Dear Sir: In my last I promised that I would endeavor to 
show how the fertility cf our rich soil maybe preserved; and I 
will add, how that which has been deteriorated by bad husband- 
ry, may be reclaimed. The cause of fertility in our rich virgin 
soils must be very apparent, when we apply the principles 
which I endeavored to establish in my former letters. If a 
large portion of the food of plants is furnished from the at- 
mosphere, and if less is lost by exhalations than is acquired in 
that way, it follows, as a necessary consequence, that the soil 
will continually grow richer. In opposition to this theory, it 
may be asked why then, in the course of many ages, have not 
certain white oak lands become very fertile, which even at this 
day are found to be very poor. I answer because white oak 
imbcr is not only a very exhausting growth, but also because 
its leaves furnish little or no manure to the soil. It is proba- 
ble also, that from the peculiar organization of its foliage, it 
may have but little capacity to absorb carbonic acid gas from 
the atmosphere. From these and other causes, the nutriment 
obtained from the atmosphere, and from the very slow decom- 
position of white oak leaves, may not be more than is barely 
sufficient to furnish nutriment to the growing timber, and hence 
there can be no increase in the fertility of the land. What 
proves this to be the fact is that when oak land is succeeded by 
a richer growth — sugar tree for instance, as is sometimes the 
case, the land gradually improves in fertility. I speak here of 
the poorer kinds of white oak land, which has no other growth 
of timber mixed with it. Other descriptions of oak land, hav- 



210 

ing a mixture of black oak and hickory are found to furnish 
a better soil. These lands are growing richer by a very slow 
and gradual process; and may probably have been formerly en- 
tirely a white oak growth. 

What is called the rich land growth of timber, is of a very 
different character from white oak. The foliage is very abun- 
dant ; the leaves probably absorb more of the atmospheric gas 
es, and when they fall they form a heavy coat of vegetable mat 
ter, which undergoes so rapid a decomposition as to form al- 
most a perfect union with the soil, before the heat of the fol 
lowing summer commences. Besides our natural growth of 
timber, in our richest soils, produces early in the season, a 
shade almost impervious to the rays of the sun. Hence there 
is but little loss by the escape of gasses. The dark 
mould, in our rich virgin soil, has the appearance of 
being composed almost entirely of animal and vegetable 
matter. But it is not so in reality. It may be worth 
while to show how it acquires this appearance. The 
capacity of a soil to acquire and retain putrescent manure is a 
quality of great value. Mr. Ruffin, in his very valuable and 
able treatise on calcareous manures, has clearly shown that 
calcareous soils have a capacity to fix and retain putrescent 
manure. The views of Mr. Ruffin are strongly corroborated 
by Sir IT. Davy (p. 54.) "The extract from decomposing veg- 
etable matter, when boiled with pipe-clay or chalk, forms a 
combination by which the vegetable matter is rendered more 
difficult of decomposition and of solution. Pure silica and sa- 
licious sands have little action of this kind; and the soils which 
contain the most alumnia and carbonate of lime are those 
which act with the greatest chemical energy in preserving 
manures." These views are sustained by actual experiment 
and there can be no doubt of their correctness. Let it be sup- 
posed then, that a soil composed chiefly of clay {alumnia) and 
calcareous earth, is covered with a species of timber which, 
in a state of nature, furnishes to the soil a greater quantity of 
vegetable food annually, than the growing timber extracts 
from the soil for its nutriment. The result would be an annu- 
al gain of vegetable food, and this excess, by reason of the 
"chemical energy" of alumnious and calcareous soils, would 
be fixed and united with them. In proportion as the soil thus 






211 

becomes more fertile, the quantity of vegetable matter would be 
increased, and consequently each successive year would leave 
upon the earth a greater excess. Rains falling- upon the de- 
caying vegetation draw off from it, what Sir H. Davy calls "veg- 
etable extract," and which by other chemists is called geine, 
uhnin, and humin. By whatever name this substance may be 
called, it forms one of the most nourishing supports of vegeta- 
tion, and by the solvent power of rain water is carried down 
into the soil, where, by chemical attraction, it is united with it. 
The rain water coming first in contact with the surface of the 
earth, that will naturally acquire the greatest share of this 
vegetable extract. But by degrees it will be carried deeper 
into the soit. This vegetable extract or humin, (Sir II. Davy 
55.) in proportion to the quantity mingled with the soil, gives 
it a dark color, and thus it will, in time, assume the appear- 
ance of mould. Sir H. Davy shows that the fibrous parts of 
vegetable matter cannot thus be introduced into the soil, but, 
by a slower process is decomposed, and forms a thin stratum of 
mould on the surface, which annually accumulates, and which, 
to some extent, by -the freezing and thawing of the earth, and 
by rains, is mixed with the upper soil. The humin contained 
in this vegetable decompi s ; tion,by the solvent power of water, 
is also, no doubt, carried to some depth in the soil beneath. 
To these sources of fertility must be added animal decomposi- 
tions of all kinds. And these are greater than is generally 
supposed. The number of earth worms and other insect tribes 
is immense. And these all contribute to increase the fertility 
of the soil by their death and decomposition. The earths also, 
if not already saturated, will absorb carbonic gas. By 
these various means the soil, in a natural state, may gradually 
increase in fertility. But it is probable the increase will not be 
indefinite. When the soil becomes completely saturated with 
vegetable extract or humin, it cannot permanently in- 
crease the quantity. Sir H. Davy states that water, (the 
agent by which vegetable extract is introduced into the soil,) 
will slowly take up or extract from the earths that substance. 
And hence there seems to be a limit to the increase of fertility. 
But so long as any portion of the soil, which can be reached by 
vegetable extract remains unsaturated, it would seem that its 
"chemical energy'* would draw it to iiself, and fix it there un- 



212 

til it should be required for the sustenance of the growing veg- 
etation. The very circumstance of water having an affinity 
for vegetable extract and being able sloiriy to take it up (when 
existing in excess) is favorable to vegetable growth. Sir H. 
Davy, (p. 54,) says "water and the decomposing animal and 
vegetable matter, existing in a soil, constitute the true nourish- 
ment of plants; and as the earthy parts of the soil are useful 
in retaining water, so as to supply it in proper proportions toth 
roots of the vegetables, so they are likewise efficacious in pro 
ducing the proper distribution of the animal and vegetable 
matter. When equally mixed with it they prevent it from de- 
composing too rapidly, and by their means the soluble parts 
are supplied in proper proportions. The application of the 
facts and principles herein set forth must be postponed to a fu- 
ture letter. 



e 

)- 



DETERIORATION OF SOIL AND MEANS OP RENOVATION. 
Letter to same, dated February 16th, 1841. 

Dear Sir: — I have endeavored to show how soils, in their 
natural state, may gradually become more fertile ; and that they 
must necessarily continue to increase in fertility so long as 
they receive from the atmosphere, and from vegetable matters, 
restored to them, more food than is consumed by the vegeta- 
ble growth of the soil. This important fact strongly illustrates 
the beneficence of a kind Providence. If the fertility of soils 
could only be kept up by restoring to them all the vegetable 
matter which they produce, it would be impossible to prevent 
them from deteriorating, because, with the utmost care in pre- 
serving and applying manures, there would be a considerable 
waste, and hence all lands brought into cultivation, would, in 
time, become barren. But as the atmosphere contains an in- 
exhaustible supply of those ingredients which constitute the 
appropriate food of plants, and will, by the use of due means, 
furnish more than will make up for the unavoidable loss in sa- 
ving and applying putrescent manures, we have the most per- 
fect assurance that a soil will never deteriorate if the hus- 
bandman will but do his part towards preserving its fertility. 
This is a most encouraging state of things, and should stimulate 
every agriculturist to the utmost efforts to prevent his soil 
from deteriorating; or, if it has already been injured by bad 
husbandry, to renovate it as soon as possible. 

To show the advantage of speedily renovating our naturally 
fertile soils, which have been much reduced by bad husband- 
ry, let it be supposed that a soil, which, in its virgin state 



214 

i 

would produce sixty bushels of corn as an average crop, should 
have been reduced in fertility so much as to make its average 
crops only thirty bushels per acre. Now if this corn is worth ! 
twenty-five cents per bushel, in the field, the farmer will have 
for the rent of his land, say two and a half dollars per acre, 
and five dollars per acre for his labor and superintendence ; and 
the land may be estimated at forty dollars per acre. The same 
land, when completely renovated, may be estimated as worth 
eighty dollars per acre, and the rent five dollars. Allowing 
five dollars for labor and superintendence, there would remain 
for sixty bushels of corn a clear profit of five dollars per acre. 
Thus in the former case, the farmer will be barely compensa- 
ted for his labor and superintendence, and receive two and a 
half dollars rent per acre for his land. In the latter case, be- 
sides being paid for his labor and superintendence, he receives 
for rent five dollars per acre, and besides, five dollars as clear 
profit. The land, when completely renovated, may be fairly 
estimated to be worth one hundred and sixty dollars per acre 
because it yields a rent of ten dollars per acre, being four 
times as much as the land at forty dollars yielded. Here then 
we seethe intrinsic value of the land quadrupledhy restoring 
it to its original fertility. Can there be a greater inducement 
for making the effort? Every farmer then should immediate- 
ly set about accomplishing so great an achievement. To en- 
ter into an elaborate discussion of the best means of preserv- 
ing the fertility of our soil, and of renovating that which has 
been deteriorated by bad husbandry, would hardly be consis- 
tent with an epistolary correspondence. I will, however, 
make a few suggestions on the subject. 

1. Restore to the soil, in the form of manure, as far as prac- 
ticable, all the vegetable matter which has been drawn from it 

2. Cultivate, in proper alternation, such crops as derive 
much of their nutriment from the atmosphere, ploughing under 
a due proportion of them according to the degree of deteriora- 
tion which the soil has undergone. 

3. Occasionally throw up the sub-soil by deep ploughing, 
after the surface has been considerably exhausted by hard 
cropping. 

4. Carefully exterminate all weeds, and to this end they 
should never be allowed to ripen their seeds. 



! 






215 

I need scarce make any remark on the first point, except to 
remind you, upon the authority of Sir Humphrey Davy, that 
putrescent manures ought never to be suffered to undergo a 
rapid fermentation at the manure pile, for the obvious reason 
that if allowed to do so, much of the valuable parts of the ma. 
nure will pass off in the form of gas. It is always best that 
the process of fermentation or decomposition should be car- 
ried on under the soil, as by this means the gases would have 
an opportunity of uniting with the earths of which the soil is 
composed, and which have a chemical affinity for the gases ari- 
sing from putrescent matter. On the second point I would 
remark that in general, broad leaved vegetables and those 
having the most leaves in proportion to stalk, deiive most nour- 
ishment from the atmosphere. There is none better than red 
clover for this purpose. And no crop can be resorted to for 
renovating our exhausted soils to greater advantage, because 
it not only acts powerfully in restoring lands which have been 
deteriorated by bad husbandry, but will pay a good rent 
while it is doing so. The number of clover crops, compared 
with grain crops, must depend upon the degree of exhaustion 
which the soil has undergone. It is always best to err on the 
safe side, and make the clover crops come too frequently rath- 
er than too seldom. On the third point, I would call your atten- 
tion to the contents of former letters, in which I showed that 
the extractor decaying vegetables or humin will be gradually 
carried down into the soil by rains, and these, particularly clay 
and calcareous soils, having a chemical attraction for those sub- 
stances, will cause them to unite with the soil. As the roots 
of growing crops are found in greater proportion near the sur- 
face, they will take up vegetable extract or humin more rapid- 
ly from thence than from the sub-soil. Hence this vegetable 
food will be more abundant, deeper in the soil, from whence it 
should be thrown to the surface that the roots of the growing 
crops may have an opportunity of taking it up by absorption. 
By ploughing deep the roots will, moreover, have an opportu- 
nity of extending themselves deeper and more widely, and thus 
collect their food from an enlarged space, and consequently 
exhaust more slowly. I need scarely make a remark to show 
the necessity of exterminating weeds. They requireybod as 
well as the growing crop, and all they consume is so much ta~ 



216 

ken from the valuable products of the land. Like all other 
crops, weeds consume most food while ripening their seeds, and 
special care should be taken not to suffer them to do so, for the 
double purpose of saving the land and preventing the ground 
from being sowed for a future crop. When by these and other 
methods the soil is saturated with vegetable food, its renovation 
will be complete, and the land will have attained its utmost ca- 
pacity for production. 



Letter to Edmund Ruffin, editor and proprietor of the Farmers 
Register, Petersburg Va., on the relation of the Constitution of 
Soils to their fertility, dated 17th June, 1341. 

Nothing can be more important to the interest of Agricul- 
ture, than a correct understanding of the means by which the 
natural fertility of soils may be preserved, and such as have 
been deteriorated by injurious husbandry renovated. You 
have rendered a very important service to the most useful of 
all sciences, by your Essay on Calcarious Manures. I pro- 
pose, in this letter, to make some desultory remarks upon the 
same subject; and shall be much gratified if I shall be able to 
throw even the smallest light upon a question of so much in- 
terest. 

Sir H. Davy, in his Agricultural Chemistry ? says "the earth:, 
and even the earthy carbonates have a certain degree of 
chemical attraction for many of the principles of vegetable 
and animal substances." That, "in most of the black and 
brown rich vegetable moulds the earths seem to be in combi- 
nation with a peculiar extractive matter, afforded during de- 
composition of vegetables. In the extract quoted by you at 
page 30, he seems to place the chemical energy of alumnia 
and carbonate of lime, in preserving putrescent manures, up- 
on an equality. I concur with you, that the powers of attract - 
ing and retaining these manures, possessed by these two 
earths, differ greatly in force. Taking for granted that car- 
bonate of lime has a very powerful chemical energy, in at_ 
trading and retaining those elementary principles, which are 
the appropriate food of plants, and that the other earths and 



218 

earthly carbonates possess this power in a slight degree, 
itwill readily appear why soils destitute of lime, in any state 
of combination, "cannot be improved durably or profitably by 
putrescent manures, without previously making them calcare- 
ous." — Essay on Cal. Man. 

In a state of nature, soils are enriched mainly by the de- 
composition of vegetable matters on the surface of the earth. 
If these were to undergo a rapid decomposition, a considerable 
proportion of the elements, constituting the appropriate food of 
plants, would escape in the form of gas, and consequently be 
entirely lost. And hence, if the growing vegetable had de- 
rived its nutriment altogether from the soil, it would restore 
much less than it had extracted for its nourishment; and would 
exhaust instead of increasing its fertility. But, in general, 
the decomposition of vegetable matter, en the surface of the 
earth, is so very slow and gradual, that but little loss occurs 
from that process. And as vegetables derive much of their 
nutriment fror^ the atmosphere, the quantity of vegetable 
food restored to the earth, by their decomposition, commonly 
greatly exceeds that which has been drawn from the earth for 
their sustenance. In a state of nature the entire vegetable 
growth is left upon the soil. When tins dies, and falls upon 
the earth, it becomes subject to the effects of dews and rain. 
These, before decomposition can take place, draw off from the 
vegetable matter an extract, which is thus carried down into 
the soil, and only the more fibrous parts remain on the surface 
to undergo slow decomposition. And this also, when conver- 
ted into mould, gives out an cxract to rain-water, and is thus 
carried down into the soil. Though that part of the vegeta- 
ble mo ill, which B^rzelius tenm geine, is, directly, but slight-- 
ly soluble in water, vet it has been demonstrated by Th. de 
Saussure that- the three constituent principles of veg- 
etable mould "may be converted the one into the other, under 
i\\2 alternately preponderating influence of air and water*!' 
Thus vegetable extract, carbonaceous mould and geine may all, 
by the influence of air and water, be rendered soluble and car- 
ried down into the earth. The extract of vegetable matter, 
mould and geine, which thus mingles with water and descends 
with it into the soil, is so slightly combined with it, that the 
earths and earthy carbonates, having a strongnr attraction 



219 

for it, will draw it off from the water and fix it in the soil. But 
these earths and earthy carbonates (if there be no lime 
present) will soon become saturated, and consequently can 
draw no more of these ingredients from the water. The 
quantity of food for vegetables laid vp in store, in the soil, 
would seem to be limited to the amount which it is capable of 
retaining in a state of combination. This is not great when 
lime, in some form of combination, is not present, but very con- 
siderable when it forms a competent part of the soil. — Hence 
the great difference in the capability of improving, by vegeta- 
ble and putrescent manures, soils which have and which have 
not lime as one of their ingredients, in some form of combina- 
tion. When soils, destitute of lime in any state of combina- 
tion, become completely saturated with those fertilizing ele- 
ments which constitute the food of plants, it might be supposed 
the remainder would continue united with the water, by which 
they were carried down into the soil." This would be true if 
there were any chemical attraction in the earths to fix and re- 
tain the water in combination with them, until the vegetable 
food could be drawn off by the spongeolets of the growing plant.-. 
But such is not the fact. Water will rise to the surface of the 
earth, whence it will be carried off by evaporation and the ab- 
sorbing power of the atmosphere. But it cannot carry with it 
the vegetable extract with which it was combined. The ex- 
periments made by Sir II. Davy upon grasses, as detailed in 
his Agricultural Chemistrv, show that the extractive matter is 

CD J * 

always left as a residuum, upon boiling the decoction. Al- 
though water may bring back to the surface of the earth such 
portion of the vegetable extract as may not have been drawn 
from it by earths, having a stronger attraction for it than the 
water, yet it cannot be carried off by evaporation and absorp- 
tion, and consequently it will be left at or near the surface of 
the soil. This deposite of vegetable extract is one of the 
causes whv vegetable mould is most abundant at and near the 
surface of soils, and assists in producing "the black and 
brown rich vegetable mould,"" in- which Davy says "the earths 
seem to be in combination with a peculiar extractive matter 
afforded during the decomposition of vegetables,' 1 Hence 
there would seem to be a continual accumulation cf geine and 
ether vegetable matters at and near the surface, so long as the 



220 

quantity of such matters furnished by decaying vegetation 
exceeds that which was consumed by the growing plants. In 
the course of time, this accumulation of vegetable matter, at 
the surface of the earth, would become very great if there were 
no means of carrying it off. In calcarious soils there is a 
chemical agency, which exerts great energy in retaining and 
confining this superabundance of vegetable food, so that the 
accumulation becomes very considerable. But in soils which 
are destitute of calcarious earth no such considerable accumu 
lations are found. This is probably owing in part to the na- 
ture of the vegetable growth, which may be incapable of draw- 
ing much of its food from the atmosphere, and consequently 
the decaying vegetation may furnish no more vegetable matter 
to the soil than it drew from it for its own nourishment. But 
as exhausted lands, even in the poorest soil, when suffered to 
grow up in timber, are found to increase slowjy.in fertility, 
it follows as a necessary consequence, that in the course of 
time there would be a considerable accumulation of vegetable 
matter on the surface of the soil, unless some agency is at 
work to carry off the superabundance. What that agent is, 
an j what are the best means of counteracting its effects, is an 
important inquiry. From the tenor of your "Essay on Calca- 
reous Manures," it is obvious you suppose the effect is produ- 
ced by certain vegetable acids, neutralizing any lime which 
may formerly have composed one of the ingredients of the 
soil, and then combining with geine and other vegetable pro- 
ducts, and thereby rendering them unfit for vegetable food for 
the more useful plants. If your views on this subject are cor- 
rect, it would seem to follow that there is in fact no loss of 
vegetable food from the want of a soil to fix and retain it, but 
that it is only rendered inefficient in consequence of its com- 
bination with certain acids in the soil. And it would seem 
that, if it were all retained in combination with acids, by the 
application of a due proportion of carbonate of lime the accu- 
mulated food of plants would immediately become available, 
and the soil be restored to the highest degree of fertility of 
which it was capable. These views are very encouraging and 
you have sustained them by such proofs and illustrations as to 

render them extremely probable.* 

Note by Mr. Ruffin. 

*The opinion expressed in the last passage we consider as sound. 



221 

The recent discovery of geine ovhumin, and the acid formed 
under certain circumstances by the combination of oxygen 
with this base, seems to prove that the existence of an acid in 
a soil is not always prejudicial to the growth of useful vege- 
tation. Professor Rennie, as quoted in your essay, says : "hu- 
mic acid, however, which I may remark is not sour to the taste, 
readily combines with many of the substances found in soils 
and manures, and not only renders them, but itself also, easy 
to be dissolved in water, which in their separate state could 
not take place. In this way humic acid will combine with 
lime, potass and ammonia, in the form of humates, and tlie 
smallest portion of these will render it soluble in water and fit 
it to be taken up by the spongeolets of the root fibres J" 

He further remarks. "It appears to hive been from- igno- 
rance of the important action of the humic acid in thus helping 
to dissolve earthy matters, that the older writers were so puz- 
zled to discover how lime and potass got into plants." Pro- 
fessor Rennie says humin or (as called by Berzeliu?) geine is 
composed of carbon and hydrogen, and the addition of oxy- 
gen to this base to form humic or geic acid. This, I apprehend, 
can no moie render it poisonous to plants than the addition of 
oxygen to carbon, thereby forming carbonic acid, can render 



and true within certain limits — but not to such extent as supposed by 
our correspondent. Vegetable matters, t l ie remains of plants previ- 
ously grown there, do, from several canses, greatly accumulate on 
naturally poor lands. But this accumulation has a limit, which is 
fixed in each case by the circumstances of the soil; and when that 
limit is reached we infer that the value of all subsequent additions is 
lost, as regularly as received. Thus, we suppose that the common 
poor pine and whortleberry ridges of lower Virginia, which will 
scarcely produce more than 10 bushels of corn, in their new and best 
state, actually have at first vegetable manure enough to produce 25 
or 30 bushels; and which vegetable manure might have been made 
useful, be fixed, and become permanent in the soil, simply by adding 
enough of calcarious manures, at or before clearing the land, and giv- 
ing time for the two to combine together, and both with the soil. 
But no more than the supposed maximum of vegetable matter (in its 
various and progressive states of decomposition,) could remain un- 
combined with the poor soil ; and if left for one thousand years without 
cultivation, we suppose that there would be not only no further in- 
crease of fertility, but, also, in our warm and dry climate, no greater 
accumulation of vegetable matter. The excess would rot, and go off' 
ingasses the final products of decomposition. 

But, notwithstanding the exception stated, and others unnecessary 
to state here, the views presented by Judge Beatty are certainly cor- 
rect, and such as we meant to maintain within very extensive limits; 
and so extensive as to afford as much encouragement to the im- 
prover of soil, as need be desired. — Ed. F. R, 



222 

that substance prejudicial to the growth of vegetation. This 
acid, so far from being prejudicial, is the principal source of 
the'supply of food for vegetables from the atmosphere. 

Berzelius says that the "carbonaceous mould, which changes 
a part of the air (atmosphere) into carbonic acid, is itself chan- 
ged by the air into geine and into the extract of mould; and it 
is upon this transformation that appears to depend, in part, the 
advantages derived from the tillage of the soil, which is divided 
by the action of the plough and exposed to the immediate in- 
fluence of the air." 

Einhof has ascertained that gcine, in acid soils, is combined 
with phosphoric and acetic acids; — and De Pontin, it is said, 
has also found it combined with the malic acid. These author- 
ities are abundantly sufficient to prove that geine is found in a 
state of combination with a variety of acids. Some of these 
combinations are found not to be prejudicial to Vegetation of 
the most useful kind, but in some of its combinations it may 
only suit the growth of vegetables of an acid character, as you 
have shown in your Essay on Calcarious Manures. I have 
said that the extract of vegetable matter, combined with wa- 
ter in the earth will remain behind, when the water is carried 
off by evaporation and absorption. The question then pre- 
sents itself, can there be no loss of vegetable extract, or geine, 
except that which goes to supply the sustenance of growing 
vegetation? If there can be none, it would follow that, in a 
state of nature, where the natural growth is such as to give 
back to the soil more than is drawn from it for its nourishment, 
and where the land is sufficiently level to prevent a loss of 
soil by washing rains, there would be a constantly increasing 
accumulation of geine and other vegetable matters, so that the 
enriching process would be ad infinitum. But I apprehend 
we cannot rely upon the energy of even our best constituted 
soils to do thus much for us. There is probably a limit to the 
capacity of all soils in this respect. When this is supplied, 
the loss, in a state of nature, in supplying nutriment to the 
growing vegetation and otherwise, is equal to the gain. 

Dr. Peter, of Kentucky, in a very valuable article, pub- 
lished in the Kentucky Farmer of the 17th of April, 1841, 
speaking of vegetable mould and its solubility, says, "if this 
mould be washed with water, that fluid will dissolve a portion 



223 

of it, and if the insoluble residue, after washing, called carbon- 
aceous earth, by Berzelius, be exposed again to the air and 
moisture, for some time, it will be found again to yield soluble 
matter to water. This it continues to do until it is entirely 
washed away; but during the process of this change, it is also 
continually, although slowly, absorbing oxygen from the air, 
which combines with its elements, and passes off again in car- 
bonic acid and water. In this manner it gradually disappears 
in soluble matters and gasses and vapors." 

If these views are correct, as I think they are, they strong- 
ly corroborate your opinion, that the richest and the poorest 
soils each exerts strongly a force to retain as much fertility as 
nature gave them — and that, when worn and reduced, each 
may easily be restored to its original state, but cannot be raised 
higher, with either durability or profit, by putrescent manures, 
whether applied by the bounty of nature, or the industry of 
man." 

There is a point, then, beyond which soils cannot be per- 
manently enriched, without an improvement of their constitu- 
tional organization, which may be done by supplying those 
ingredients of a good soil which arc deficient, such as clay, 
where sand is too predominant, and carbonate of lime, where 
that is defficient, &c. 

But without a change in the constitutional organization of 
the soil, we cannot hope to carry its fertility, permanently , 
bevond what it had acquired in a state of nature. Soils which 
have been reduced by cultivation, where they have not been 
injured by washing rains, may be easily renovated. This 
must be done by again supplying them with those fertilizing 
ingredients of which thev have been deprived by bad hus- 
bandry. This may be accomplished, in part, by the applica- 
tion of manures ; but it is to the atmosphere we must look as 
the great storehouse whence we are to draw the necessary 
supply of vegetable food. To this end, those green 
crops should be freely cultivated, which derive most of their 
food from the atmosphere. In soils adapted to it, red clover is 
the most suitable for this purpose. It is by far the most con- 
venient, and the cheapest method of renovating exhausted 
soils . It not only supplies a great deal of vegetable matter to 
soils that have been much reduced, but it is admirably calcula" 



224 

ted to pulverize, and reduce its component parts to a finely di- 
vided state, and thus to produce a condition favorable to a com- 
bination with those elementary principles, which are furnished 
by the atmosphere ; and also greatly increases its capacity for 
absorbing moisture. Care should be taken aho to suffer as few 
weeds to ripen their seeds as possible. These, previous to the 
time or' ripening their seeds, derive nearly the whole of their 
nutriment from the atmosphere. By destroying them before 
they seed, nearly their whole product of vegetable matter is a 
net gain to the soil. Exhausting grain crops should be spa- 
ringly cultivated till the soil is completely renovated, and then 
should benr only such a proportion to the grain crops as the 
soil will bear without deterioration. It should be a fixed princi- 
ple never to suffer the soil to deteriorate, for as it costs as much 
to cultivate a soil, producing only half or two-thirds of a crop? 
as if it produced a full crop, it is perfectly clear that it is the 
interest of the cultivator to keep his land always in good heart, 
Besides, it is less difficult to keep land in a state of fertility than 
to renovate it after it has been exhausted by careless husbandry 
But it is time to bring my desultory speculations to a close. 

*Itis > now well known that vegetable matter, while undergoing de- 
composition, forms a number of acids, termed by chemists humic, 
ulmic, crenic, apoerenic, malic &c. (See Johnston's lectures part 2d 
p. 406.) ^ It has also been ascertained, that a number of inorganic sub- 
stances, in addition to those of the organic kind, such as potash, so- 
da, lime, magnesia, silica, oxide of iron, oxide of magnesia &c. (all 
of which substances are contained in the ashes of vegetables) are es- 
sential to the growth of plants. The above acids, by combining with 
these inorganic substances, form humates, ulmates, crenates &c. and 
thus prepare them (or entering into the food of plants, as these salts 
shall, from time to time, be dissolved, by dews, rain and snow. Ox- 
ides are not soluble in pure water, but when this contains acids, in 
solution, it readily dissolves them, and hence another advantage re- 
sulting from the formation of acids, in the process of vegetable de- 
composition. 



Letter to same, od the importance of Alkalies in soils, dated 1st 

January, 1842. 

The following quotation is from Liebig's late work on or- 
ganic chemistry. "A soil, which has been exposed for centu- 
ries to all the influencies which effect the disintegration of 
rocks, but from which the alkalies have not been removed, 
will be able to afford the means of nourishment to those veo-c- 
tables, which require alkalies for their growth, during mnnv 
years, but it must gradually become exhausted, unless those 
alkalies, which have been removed, are replaced; a period will 
therefore arrive, when it will be necessary to expose it, from 
time to time, to further disintegration, in order to obtain a new 
supply of soluble alkalies. For small as is the quantity of 
alkali which plants require, it is nevertheless quite indispensa- 
ble for their perfect development. But when one or more 
years have elapsed, without any alkalies having been extract- 
ed from the soil, a new harvest may be expected." 

"The first colonists of Virginia found a country the soil of 
which was similar to that mentioned above; harvests of wheat 
and tobacco were obtained for a century, from one and the same 
field, without the aid of manure, but now whole districts are 
converted into unfruitful pasture land, which, without manure, 
produces neither wheat nor tobacco. From every acre of 
this land there were removed, in the space of one hundred 
years, 1200 pounds of alkalies in leaves, grain, and straw; it 
became unfruitful, therefore, because it was deprived of every 
particle of alkali ; which had been reduced to a soluble state, 
and because that which was rendered soluble again, in the 



226 

space of one year, was not sufficient to satisfy the demands 
of the plants. Almost all the cultivated land in Europe is in 
this condition ; fallow is the term applied to land left to rest 
for further disintegration. It is the greatest possible mistake 
to suppose that the temporary diminution of fertility, in a soil, 
is owing to the loss of humus: it is the mere consequence of 
the exhaustion of the Alkalies." —p. 195-6. 

Although the facts stated in the latter papagraph of the 
above quotation may not be entirely correct, yet it is worthy 
of inquiry whether the diminution in the fertility of the lands 
of lower Virginia, may not, in a considerable degree, have 
been caused by the exhaustion of the alkalies, which existed 
in the soil, at the time it was first brought into cultivation. 

According to Liebig, the development of a plant requires 
the presence, first, of substances containing carbon and ni- 
trogen, and capable of yielding these elements to the growing 
organism; secondly, of water and its elements; and lastly, 
of a soil to furnish the inorganic matters, which are likewise 
essential to vegetable life." — p. 50. 

Water is composed of hydrogen and oxygen, and as plants 
are capable of decomposing, and assimilating its elements, 
(p. 122 and 125,) there can never be a deficiency in the sup- 
ply of these to the growing vegetation, except in time of 
drouth. During the early growth of plants, carbon is furnished 
by the humus of the soil, in which they grow, but after they 
have developed their leaves an abundant supply of carbon is 
obtained from the atmosphere, by means of their absorbing 
power. This supply is so great, that in the opinion of Liebig, 
(p. 103.) they no longer acquire any from the soil, and return 
even that which they had extracted, during the formation of 
their first leaves. The remaining organic substance, essen- 
tial to the growth of plants, is nitrogen. This, according to 
Liebig, is furnished, to some extent, from the atmosphere, in 
the form of carbonate of ammonia. This substance is very 
soluble in water, and consequently combines with the moisture 
of the atmosphere, and is brought down to the earth with the 
dews, rain and snow; and thus furnishes, to some extent, this 
necessary element for the nourishment of plants. To pre- 
serve the fertility and productiveness of soils, the deficiency of 
nitrogen must be supplied by the application of putrescent 



227 

manures, which abound in this ingredient. According to Lie 
big, this may be so easily effected, that by the application of 
human excrements, "using, at the same time, bones and lixiv- 
iated ashes of wood, the excrements of animals might be com- 
pletely dispensed with. ,, -r-p. 242. 

From these views it is quite apparent, that but little effort 
necessary to prevent our growing crops from suffering from a 
deficiency in the principal organic elements, which constitute 
the appropriate food of plants. 

Bat several inorganic matters *'\;r itialtov 

etable life."* Licbig informs us that "most plants, perhaps 

*An opinion formerly prevailed, that organic substances formed the 
thief ingredients of vegetable food. But there can no longer be a 
doubt that inorganic substance* arc as essential to vegetable life as 
those of the organic kind. Johnston, in his lectures on the applica- 
tion of chemistry and geology to agriculture, part second, p. 263 Bays : 
"from the constant presence of inorganic matter in plants, and from 
its being always found in nearly the same proportion, in the same 
species of plants, a doubt can hardly remain that it is an esse: 
part of their substance, ana that they cannot live and thrive without 
it. But that it really is so, is placed beyond a doubt, by the further 
experimental fact, that if a healthy young plant be placed in cir- 
cumstances where it cannot obtain this inorganic matter, it droops, 
pines, and dies. But if it be really essential to their growth, this in- 
organic matter must be considered as a part of the food of plants; an I 
we may as correctly speak of feeding or supplying food to pi 
when we add earthy and mineral substances to the soil, as when we 
mix with it a supply of rich compist, or of well fermented farm yar I 
manure." He further remarks that it is almost demonstrated "that 
plants do feed upon dead unorganized mineral matter, and that yoa 
are therefore really manuring your soil, and permanently improving 
it, when you add to it such substances of a proper kind. 

From these views, the correctness of which I do not doubt, it would 
be extremely important to ascertain the inorganic matters — and in 
what proportions, suitable to each of the different crops, we are ac- 
customed to raise. It would be equally important to have the soil of 
each farm analized, so as to ascertain in what proportions the inorgan- 
ic elements already exist, so that if any of them are deficient they 
might be supplied. Johnston shows, that the following are^ the 
inorganic elements suitable for the wheat crop. Pot ash, soda, lime, 
Magnesia, allumnia, with a trace of iron, Silica, Sulphuric acid, 
Phosphoric acid, Chlorine. Rye and oats require the same inorganic 
substances, and oxide of iron raid magnesia in addition. Rye grass, 
red clover, white clover, lucern, sainfoin, and the root crops, to wit : 
turnips, carrots, parsnips and potatoes require the same. It will be 
seen therefore that crops in general require nearly the same inorganic 
elements, but they are required in different proportions. 

To show the importance of inorganic substances to constitute a good 
soil, Johnston refers to a very fertile soil, containing less thttn a half 
per cent, of organized substances, but with a full supply of the proper 
inorganic substances; and to two other soils, having more than 25 per 
cent of organized substances, which were barren and unfruitful, be- 
cause of an almost total deficiency of some of the most important in- 
organic matters, to wit: lime, magnesia, potash, soda, phosphoric 
acid, sulphuric acid and chlorine. See p. 418-419. 



228 

all of them, contain organic acids of very different composition 
and properties, all of which are in combination with bases , 
such as potash, soda, lime or magnesia. These bases evi- 
dently regulate the formation of the acids, foF a diminution of 
the one is followed by a decrease of the other,"-(p. 148.) 
Here are four of the inorganic substances, which are most es- 
sential to the growth of vegetables. They are, it is true, com- 
bined with organic acids, which are necessary to fit them for 
assimilation, but the quantity of the acid is always regulated 
by the base, so that if the latter be diminished, the former will 
be decreased in a corresponding degree; and whenever a base 
is present the acid will be supplied. We have then but to 
furnish the soil with potash, soda, lime and magnesia, (if they 
do not already exist,) when the necessary acids, to fit them for 
assimilation by the growing plants, will combine with them. 

The inorganic substances, mentioned above, are all impor- 
tant in constituting a good soil, but magnesia is, perhaps, less 
so than either of the others ; yet even this is essential to the 
vigorous growth of many vegetables, for t as we are told by 
Liebig "all seeds of the gramineae contain phosphate of mag- 
nesia," (p. 93,) and that without this substance, "the seeds of 
corn (wheat) could not be formed ."-(p. 20 i.) 

Many soils are, by nature, abundantly supplied with carbon- 
ate of lime. Bat where it does not exist in soils, it is very 
important that it should be supplied. Fortunately, the exten- 
sive banks of shell marl, in lower Virginia, afford the means of 
doing so, and no reasonable expense should be spared in ac- 
complishing an object so important in the renovation of ex- 
hausted soils. 

Vegetables of all kinds contain in their composition, more 
or less of the alkalies. It is very clear, therefore, that this 
ingredient is indispensably necessary to their growth. If a soil 
has been entirely exhausted of the alkalies, it must necessari- 
ly be completely barren. If it has been only partially ex- 
hausted, it will still be capable of producing a vigorous growth 
of those trees and plants, which require only a small supply 
of the alkalies. But the growth of those, which require a 
large supply, must necessarily be much stinted. Thus forest 
trees, the leaves of which are renewed annually, require from 
six to ten times more alkalies than the pine or fir tree* and 



229 

licnce pines will grow vigorously in a soil where other ti 
cannot attain maturity .-(p. 198.) So 100 p-rts of wheat 
straw will yield of ashes 15.5 parts, whilst that of barley yields 
8,54, and of oats only 4,42.-(p. 199.) 

Plants of the leguminosm family require very small quanti - 
ties of the alkalies. Buckwheat, beans, lucern clover, and 
lentils yield less than one per cent of ashes.-p. 204. 

These facts are abundantly sufficient to show that the quan- 
tity of alkalies, in soils, should be in proportion to the kind of 
crops intended to be produced. If they exist only sparingly, 
those crops should be avoided, which require a large supply, 
unless they should have been furnished by artificial mo 
Wheat requires not only more of the alkalies thnn any other 
crop, but also a considerable quantity of the phosphates, and 
is therefore a very exhausting crop.-(p. 205.) 

The alkalies being so necessary to constitute a good soil, the 
question arises how this ingredient is to be supplied to those 
roils from which it has been nearly ail exhausted. This is to 
be accomplished, first, by ceasing to cultivate those crops, which 
require a large supply cf the alkalies; and secondly, by fur- 
nishing, by artificial means, those soils which are deficient, 
with a due proportion of these essential ingredients. 

Soils are supplied with alkalies, in the natural way, first, 
the disintegration of rocks, (p. 185} and secondly, by water 
evaporated from the sea, and falling in the form of rain, snow 
and dew (p. 160, 166, 7.) But the supply from these sources 
is too slow and gradual to be relied upon exclusively, and 
therefore great efforts should be made to increase the quantity 
by the application of ashes. Lixiviated ashes are valuable, 
as they contain silicate of potash, and salts of phosphoric acid; 
(p. 228) but those which have not been lixiviated are more so. 
Both kinds are so highly esteemed as manures, in Germany, 
that they are transported to the distance of twenty four miles. 
In situations, which admit of water or railroad transportation, 
they might be carried to still greater distances, with decided 
advantage. 

It is not very material whether potash or soda is furnished 
to soils, from which the alkalies have been extracted, for these 
bases are readily substituted for each other, where there is a 
deficiency of either, (p. 149.) Potash mav even be substituted, 

U* 



230 

in many cases, not only by soda, but also by lime and magne- 
sia, (p. 200.) This shows what a powerful effort is made by 
nature to supply plants with alkalies, by substituting alkaline 
earths, where they are entirely deficient. 

I have heretofore adverted to the high estimate formed by 
Liebig, as to the value of human excrements as a manure. Of 
these, urine is by far the most valuable part. Urine contain* 
several ingredients, which are extracted from the ashes of 
wood, such as the sulphate of potash and soda, and phosphate of 
soda. It contains also phosphates of ammonia, magnesia and 
lime, and several other valuable ingredients for the nourish- 
ment of plants. Liebig estimates 100 parts of the urine 
of a healthy man to be equal to 1300 parts of the fresh dung 
of a horse, (p. 240.) The saving and application of this ma- 
nure is, therefore, of very great importance. But if not prop- 
erly taken care of it is subject to great loss. During putre- 
faction, corbonute of ammonia is formed, which volatilizes, and 
passes off in form of gas, and the urine becomes alkaline. In 
this way nearly one half of the urine is lost. (p. 237.) Lie- 
big informs us, that the carbonate of ammonia, formed during 
the putrefaction, may be converted into a salt, and thus fixed 
in the soil. This may be effected by strewing a field with 
gypsum, and then sprinkling it with urine. It may also be 
neutralized, and converted into a salt, which has no volatility 
by the chloride of calcium, sulphuric or muriatic acid, or su- 
per-sulphate of lime. (p. 238.) As the value of this manure 
will be so greatly increased, by preventing the ammonia from 
escaping, which is formed during the putrefactive process, this 
should never be neglected* 

*See note at the end of the essay on the system of agriculture best 
adapted to Kentucky. 



Letter to fkmai B. Stephenson, Esq. on the relative value of the 
most important grasses, dated May 10th. 1511. 

Dear Sir: I have noticed in the Kentucky Farmer of tha 
26th February, a communication from Mr. Lewis Sanders, on 
the cultivation of the ' ; orchard grass," in which he gives that 
grass -a preference over all others." Mr. Sanders' communi- 
cation has suggested to me the idea of an inquiry into the 
relative value of the most important grasses, cultivated in 
Kentucky, and whether others of greater value might not be 
introduced. This is a question of much importance, and ought 
to be tested by rigorous experiments, both as relates to the 
q aantity of grass, hay and nutritive matter, produced bv each ■ 
and also as to their adaptation to our soil and climate. 

Sir II. Davy, in his Agricultural Chemistry, has given the 
results of a great number of experiments on the grasses, mace 
by Mr. Sinclair, under the direction of the Dake of Bedford, 
at his garden at Woburn Abbey, which are eminently useful, 
in this respect, as they will gerve as models for conducting 
similar experiments in our state. The experiments alluded 
to, embrace near a hundred different species of classes. [ 
have given, in the following tables, a summary of the most 
important facts, so far as they relate to orchard grass, (Dacty- 
Vus glomerata.) timothy (Phleum,) clover (Trifolium.) and 
blue grass (Poa ) These facts are derired from Sir PI. Daw's 
work on agricultural chemistry; and include all that are essen- 
tial to form a correct judgment as to the comparative merits 
of the different grasses. I have given the results of the ex- 
periments of several different species of timothy, clover, and 
blue grass. These have not all been introduced into the 
country, but I have thought it would be useful to exhibit their 
respective merits, with a view to the introduction of the more 
valuable kinds, if that object has not already been secured. 



232 

The following remarks of Sir H. Davy are necessary to 
show the principles upon which the experiments were con- 
ducted, and will enable the reader to understand the annexed 
tables. 

"Spots of ground, each containing four square feet, in the 
garden at Woburu Abbey, were inclosed by boards, in such a 
manner that there was no lateral communication between the 
earth, included by the boards, and that of the garden. The 
soil was removed, in these enclosures, and new soils supplied, 
or a mixture of soils 1 was made in them, to furnish, as far as 
possible, to the different grasses those soils which seemed most 
favorable to their growth; a few varieties being adopted for 
the purpose of ascertaining the effect of different soils on the 
same plants." 

"The grasses were either planted or sown, and their produce 
cut and collected and dried, at the proper season, in summer 
and autumn, by Mr Sinclair, his Grace's gardener. For the 
purpose of determining, as far as possible, the nutritive powers 
of the different species, equal weights of the dry grasses or 
vegetable substances were acted upon by hot water till all 
their soluble parts were dissolved.— The solution was then 
evaporated to dryness by a gentle heat in a proper stove, and 
the matter obtained carefully weighed. This part of the 
process was likewise conducted with much address and intelli- 
gence by Mr. Sinclair, by whom all the following details and 
calculations are furnished. " 

"The dry extracts, supposed to contain the nutritive matter 
of the grasses, were sent to me for chemical examination. 
The composition of some of them is stated in a foregoing 
table; I shall offer a few chemical observations on others, at 
the end of this appendix. It will be found, from the general 
conclusions, that the mode of determining the nutritive powers 
of the grasses, by the quantity of matter they contain, soluble 
in water, is sufficiently accurate for all the purposes of agri- 
cultural investigation." 

As some of the grasses contained in the- following tables, 
are most profitable for hay, when cut while in blossom; and 
others, when the seed is ripe, the tables show the results in 
both cases so far as the different results are reported by Sir 
H. Davy. The letter F indicates that the grass was cut when 



233 



in flower, and S when the seed was ripe, The better to com- 
pare the different species of the same grass, I have framed 
separate and distinct tables of timothy, clover and blue grass, 
and have given the results of the experiment upon orchard 
grass, which will enable the reader to form an opinion as to 

its comparative merits. 

TABLE I. 



1. Phleum praten- 
tis, called in Eng- 
land meadow cat's 
tail grass — In Ken- 
tucky, timothy, na- 
tive of Britain, Pro- 
duct at the time of 
F. 

Ditto at the time 
of S. 

2. Phleum praten- 
m, a minor variety. 
Meadow cat's tail. 
Native of Britain, 
Product at the time 
of S. 

3. Phleumnodosum; 
bulbous stalked sat's 
tail grass; native of 
Britain ; product at 
the time of F. 



o o 

m O 

— ' T3 

ed 2 






34 
38 



34 



33 



- ~ 03 

a O ri 

sd 2 o 

_b &, > 

— — 



2i 

5| 



2* 



2* 



a 

a. 



o 



40,837 
40,837 



27,225 



12,251 



03 
P. 

>* 

a 

6 rt 



17,355 
19,397 



11,570 



5,819 



• r> o 



e 

> o 



1,595 
3,668 



1,169 



478 



In giving the above results from Sir PL Davy, I have omit- 
ted, :n the three last columns, the fractions of pounds, and will 
do the same in the other tables. One of the most important 
facts shown by the foregoing table, is the very great difference 
of nutritive matter in ^he first species of timothy, when cut 
at the time the seed is ripe, and at the time of flowering, the 
total nutritive matter at the former period, being more than 
two and a quarter to one. This, I apprehend, is the species 
of timothy which is cultivated in Kentucky for meadow, and 
every farmer must perceive, by an examination of the table, 
the great loss which must be sustained in nutritive matter, by 
cutting timothy while in blossom. Sir H. Davy states that 
"84 drachms of the straws (of this species of timothy) afford 
of nutritive matter 7 drachms,*' and that "the nutritive powers 
of the straws simply, exceed those of the leaves in the propor- 
tion as 2S to 8," which is nearly four to one. These facts 
clearly show the importance of suffering timothy, which is 
intended for hay, to stand until it is fully ripe,. 



234 



The other species of Phleum, contained in the table, are so 
obviously inferior to the first as to be wholly unworthy of 
attention. 

TABLE II. 



i. Poa pratensis; 
smooth stalk'd mea- 
dow grass, native of 
Britain, product at 
tie time of F. 

Ditto at the time 
ofS. 

2. Poa trivialis 
roughish meadow 
grass, native of Bri- 
tain, product at the 
time of F. 

Ditto at the time 
of S. 

3. Poa angushfo 
Ha, narrow leaved 
meadow grass, na- 
tive of Britain, pro- 
duct at the time of 
F. 

Ditto at the time 
of S. 

4. Poa elatior, tall 
meadow grass, na- 
tive of Scotland, 
product at the time 
ofF. 

5. Poa mdratima, 
6ea meadow grass, 
Lative of Britain, 
product at the time 
of F. 

6. Poa cristaia^ 
crested meadow 
grass, native of Brit- 
ain, product at the 
time of F. 

7. Poa fertilis, 
meadow grass, na- 
tive of Germany, 
product at the time 
of F. 

_ 8. Poafertilis, fer- 
tile meadow grass, 
native of Germany, 
product at the time 
ofF. 

Ditto at the time 
of S. 



o 
03 7i 

_£ p 

-T en C3 
00 c3 

f-r '-*■« 

fcJD O 

32 



24 
38 



34 
32 

28 

32 

36 

42 

34 

44 



R) 



o 

• 03 

£% 



If 

14 



2 

2| 



5 

H 

44 



44 

3 

5 



o 



10,209 
8,507 

7,486 

7,827 



18,376 
9,528 

12,251 

12,251 

10,890 

14,973 

15,654 

14,978 



o 
a 

p*;2 
**» 

nJ 



2,871 
3,403 

2,246 
3,522 



7,810 
3,811 

4,287 

4,900 

4,900 

7,861 

6,653 
8,235 



235 

The foregoing table exhibits a number of very interesting 
facts. Of the eight species of Poa enumerated, the product 
of hay from 80 drachms of grass, varies from 22^ to 44 
drachms. The quantity of nutritive matter contained in 64 
drachms of grass, varies from one and a half to five and a 
quarter drachms. 

And the quantity of nutritive matter, per acre, varies from 
279 pounds (the flower crop) to 1,430 pounds. The quantity 
of grass varies from 7,486 pounds to 18,376. The difference 
in the product of hay is equally remarkable. The product of 
the best crop of No. 1, is 3,403 pounds, whilst the product of 
No. 8, is 8,235. Equal quantities of grass ef No. 3 and 8, 
contain the like amount of nutritive matter, but the Poa 
angustifolia affords a considerable larger quantity of grass, 
and 1,430 pounds of nutritive matter per acre, whilst the Poa 
fertills (second variety No. 8,) affords only 1,169 pounds per 
acre. The former is, therefore, apparently the most valuable, 
though it does not produce so great a weight of hay. No. 3, 
7 and 8 afford the greatest quantity of nutritive matter per 
acre, and also give a larger product of grass and hay than any 
of the other species. They would seem, therefore, to be the 
best varieties of the Poa genus, provided our soil and climate 
will suit them as well as those of England. It is a question of 
much importance, but which lam unable to solve, whether our 
famous blue grass belongs to either, and which of the varie- 
ties mentioned in the foregoing table, l^ some skilful botanist 
would investigate and determine the question, it might be of 
very great importance; for if it do not belong to the best varie- 
ty, it would be worthy of inquiry whether we might not be 
able to introduce a species of Poa that would be more valuable 
than our blue grass.* The Poa angustifolia cut when in 
flower, produces 18,376 pounds of grass; 7,810 pounds of hay. 
and 1,430 pounds of nutritive mater. This probably exceeds 
considerably the product of our blue grass. If that be iden- 
tical with the Poa pratensis of England, as I suspect it is, 
from the description of grass, contained in Rees' Cyclopaedia, 
then it would seem, from the experiments detailed above, that 



* 4 »The famous Kentucky Blue grass i3 now undoubtedly the poa 
pratensis and in this confident opinion we are sustained by eveJ y 
Kentucky botanist we have consulted on the subject." — Ed. Ky. Far. 



236 



several of the species contained in the foregoing table, would be 
of superior value, provided they are equally adapted to our 
soil and climate. The flower crop of the Poa pratensis yiel- 
ded only 10,209 pounds of grass, and 279 pounds of nutritive 
matter per acre. The flower crop of th8 Poa angustifolia 
produced 14,376 pounds of grass and 1,430 pounds of nutri- 
tive matter. Each of the two species of Poa fertilis, No. 
7 and 8, also greatly excel the Poa pratensis, whether we re- 
gard the product of grass hay or nutritive matter. These 
facts clearly point out the propriety of further investigations 
in relation to this important subject. 

We have been in the habit of regarding our blue grass as 
invaluable, and for pastures it is justly entitled to be ranked 
very high. But it is possible other grasses may be entitled to 
still greater praise. It is the part of wisdom to give a fair and 
full examination to such as may have the appearance of ex- 
celling our famous blue grass, and decide upon their respective 
merits by the test of rigorous experiment. 

TABLE III. 



1. Trifolium pra- 
tensis, broad leaved 
cultivated clover, 
native of Britain, 
product at the time 
of S. 

2. Trifolium mach- 
rorhizum, long root- 
ed clover, native of 
Hungary, product 
at the time of S 

3. F. Medicago sa- 
liva, lucerne, native 
of Britain, product 
at the time of S. 



80 drachms of 
grass, produce 
of hay. 


64 dr. of grass 
produce of nu- 
tritive matter. 


u 

o 

8 & 

bfi CD 

o 
Eh 


U 


20 


2i 


49,005 


12,251 


34 


2f| 


98,010 


41,654 


32 


!i 


70,785 


28,314 



S 5 i- » 

•S3 £X~ 






1,914 



4,211 



1,659 



By an examination of the table No. 3, it will be seen that 
the Trifolium pratensis, (our common red clover) is less pro- 
ductive of grass and hay than either of the other species. It 
is also inferior to either of the others as regards the quantity 
of hay produced by a given quantity of grass. The proportion 
of hay to grass is only 1 to 4, while, in the other two species, 
the quantity of hay is considerably over one third of the grass. 
Taking equal quantities of grass, the lucerne is the least nu- 



237 

ctritive, and its nutritive matter per acre is also less than ei- 
ther of the others. Although it yields a large quantity of 
grass and hay, yet from its deficiency of nutritive matter, it 
would seem to be of less value than either of the other 
species. But as this species of clover has a very rapid growth, 
-and may be cut more frequently than the others, it may prob- 
ably, for the purpose of soiling, be found to be a valuable 
grass. The immense quantity of grass and hay produced by 
the Trifolium Mach?'orhizwn, according to the above table, in- 
duced me to suspect there was some error in the figures. But 
by making a calculation, upon the data furnished, I found that 
there was no error. That species excels either of the others 
in the quantity of hay and nutritive matter from a given quan- 
tity of grass ; and also greatly exceeds either of the others in 
its products per acre, of grass hay and nutritive matter. If 
the quality of the grass and hay, and their adaptation to the 
purposes of feeding stock should be equal to our common red 
clover, and if well adapted to our soil and climate, it may 
probably be introduced, with great advantage, among our culti- 
vated grasses. Its utility ought, however, to be tested by ac- 
tual and rigorous experiment. 

Dactylis glo?nerata; called in England, round-headed cocks- 
foot grass; in Kentucky, orchard grass, and by some Salem 
grass. 

In the experiments related by Sir II. Davy, 80 drachms of 
this grass, at the time of flowering, produced 31 drachms of 
hay; and 04 drachms of grass produced 2-| drachms of nutri- 
tive matter. The quantity of grass, hay and nutriment, per 
acre, was respectively 27,905; 11,859, and 1,089 pounds. At 
the time the seed was ripe, 80 drachms of grass produced 40 
drachms of hay ; 61 drachms of do. produced 3^ drachms of 
nutritive matter. And the quantity of grass, hay and nutri- 
ment was respectively 20,544; 13,272 and 1,441 pounds. 
These results are quite favorable to this grass, but will not en- 
title it to a rank above all others, which Mr. Sanders seems to 
claim for it. 

Its merit compared with some other grasses, will appear from 

the following statement : 

Grass. Hay. Nutriment, 

Timothy, product per acre, 40,837 19,397 3,( 

V 



238 



T. Medicago Sativa, 


70,785 


28,314 


1,659 


Trifolium pratensis, 


49,005 


12,251 


1,914 


Trifolium Machrorhizum 


98,010 


41,654 


4,211 


Orchard Grass, 


26,544 


13,272 


1,451 


Poa Angustifolia, 


18,376 


7,810 


1,430 



Although the seed crop of the orchard grass contains a lit- 
tle more nutritive matter than the Poa angustifolia, yet when 
the comparison is made between the entire quantity of nutri- 
tive matter afforded by the flower crop of these grasses, it will 
be seen that the Poa angustifolia has greatly the advantage, 
as an equal quantity of this latter grass affords double the nu- 
triment of the former. 

In forming an estimate of the relative value of grasses for 
pasture, it is very important to take into consideration the 
quantity of nutritive matter afforded by each. This may be 
illustrated by supposing an ox to eat fifty pounds of grass per 
day. If pastured on orchard grass he would take into his 
stomach only one half the quantity of nutritive matter that he 
would if pastured on Poa angustifolia. Now it is manifest 
that if the grasses are equally palatable, an ox would fatten 
much more rapidly on the latter than on the former. Several of 
the species of the Poa have greatly the advantage of the or- 
chard grass, as regards nutritive matter. Thus No. 3, 4, 5 
and 7, in table second, afford from 3| to 5 drachms of nutritive 
matter out of each 64 drachms of grass, while the same quan- 
tity of orchard grass affords only 2^ drachms. On the other 
hand the orchard grass is more nutritive than some of the oth- 
ers. Thus No. 1, which I suppose to be identical with our 
blue grass, affords only 1 % drachms of nutriment out of 64 
drachms of grass. Here the orchard grass has the advantage 
of this species of the Poa. 

The remarks I have made are founded upon data, furnished 
by experiments made in England. But it would be much more 
satisfactory if an accurate course of experiments should be 
instituted upon our own grasses, from the results of which we 
might determine with greater accuracy the relative value of 
different grasses, and it is very desirable that some one who is 
well qualified for the task would undertake it. I have al- 
ready extended this article to a greater length than I had in- 
tended, and must, therefore, refrain from making any further 



239 

comments, except to say that all the products arising from the 
experiments made by Mr. Sinclair, appear to be very great. 
This may in part be accounted for from the excellence of the 
soil, in which they were made, and the great care with which 
the different grasses were cultivated. As, however, they all 
had, probably, equal advantages, the relative products may 
show with sufficient accuracy the relative value of the differ- 
ent grasses. 



ON SETTING WOODLAND IN GRASS. 

No person, who has seen the beautiful woodland pastures of 
Kentucky, can help admiring and approving the policy, which 
converts unsightly and unproductive forests into the most 
charming and luxuriant pastures. The object of this essay is 
to describe the manner in which this useful process may be 
best accomplished. 

In the various essays, on this subject, which I have seen, 
the writers, it seems to me, do not descend sufficiently into 
the minutia of the process to instruct those who have had no- 
previous information. This is an error into which it is natu- 
ral they should fall. Residing in a quarter of the country 
where the whole process is very familiar, and of every day's 
practice, it is not surprising, that they should not comprehend 
the necessity of a very minute account of it, in order to in- 
struct others. The object of this essay is to give full and com- 
plete information to those who are entire strangers to the pro- 
cess. 

The best grasses for setting woodland in pasture are bluo 
grass, (poa pratensis) and orchard grass, (dactylis glomerata.) 
The former is generally preferred for the rich Kentucky lands, 
having a deep vegetable soil; the latter answers best in soils, 
having a growth of white oak, and hickory; or where there 
is a considerable mixture of sand. It also succeeds better than 
blue grass, where the timber has not been much thinned out. 
But if the soil is well adapted to blue grass, and the timber has 
been sufficiently cleared away, blue grass is entitled to a deci- 
ded preference. It forms a more beautiful turf, affords a sweet- 
er pasture, and stands the winter better than orchard grass. 



241 

Calcarious soils, having the usual growth of the rich lands 
of Kentucky, such as ash, sugar tree, black and white walnut, 
buck eye, box elder, black locust, &.c. are well adapted to blue 
grass. Where white oak and hickory predominate, or where 
there is a considerable mixture of sand in the soil, orchard 
grass will do best. If there is a doubt as to which kind is 
best adapted to the soil, the two grasses may be sown together. 
By degrees, that which suits best will gain the preponderance, 
and extirpate the other. 

The saving of seed is the first thing, which should be at- 
tended to, after the farmer has so far got a start in the business, 
as to have it in his power to do so. In the commencement of 
the process he will be compelled to buy, but so soon as it is in 
his power, he should save his own seed. He will find this 
more economical, and better, on many accounts. He will be 
certain to have his seed well ripened, and saved in such a man- 
ner as not to heat and spoil, by putting it away when not suffi- 
ciently cured and dry. And if saved, as herein directed, it 
will be in much better condition for sowing than it is, as usual- 
ly purchased in stores, or commission houses. Besides, when 
saved by himself the farmer will not be too sparing of his seed, 
when sowing, as it will have cost him nothing but a little la- 
bor. 

Various methods of saving blue grass seed are practised, 
such as stripping, mowing, cradling, and reaping. The first 
of these methods is too tedious, and besides leaves the seed in 
bad condition for sowing as it would fall too much in bunches. 
A well constructed cradle, or a keen sythe, by which the tops 
of the grass may be cut, and but few of the blades, will be 
found a convenient way of saving blue grass seed, where the 
grass stands up well, and there are not many stumps, in the 
way. If cut with a sythe, it should be thrown into a double 
swarth, and the scattering tops of the grass raked into the row, 
so as to be convenient for gathering, and removing, at the prop- 
er time. The cradle, if well constructed, will perform both 
the work of the sythe and rake. When cut the grass should 
be suffered to lie exposed to the rain and dews, for several 
weeks, (a longer or shorter time, according to the quantity of 
rain that falls) until it shall have become so weather-beaten as 
to cause the seed to seperate readilv from the straw, or heads 



242 

If reaped, (which may be found more convenient where there 
are many stumps, or but little is intended to be saved) each 
hand full should be spread out thin, and left exposed to the 
weather, in the same manner as that which has been cradled 
or mown. After the grass has been exposed to the weather a 
sufficient length of time it should be removed to a barn floor, 
(if there be one) or a dirt floor, made for the purpose, where it 
may be threshed with flails, or tread out with horses, as may be 
found most convenient. If the quantity to be threshed is not 
considerable, flails may be used to advantage, but if the quanti- 
tity is very great, it will be more expeditious to tread it out with 
horses. If got out with horses, after removing as much of the 
straw as can be raked off with fine rakes, the seed should be 
passed through a coarse lime riddle, assisting the operation by 
rubbing it round the riddle with the hand, and should then be 
run through a wheat fan, turning so slowly as to blow out only 
the chaff and fine straw. If thre?hed with flails, the riddle 
may be dispensed with, and the rakes and wheat fan will alone 
be necessary. Orchard grass seed may be conveniently sa- 
ved by reaping, (leaving the stubble high) and binding in 
sheaves. These should be set on their butt ends, arranged in 
long shocks, and left exposed to the weather, until the seed 
will readily separate, and then, when very dry, should be haul- 
ed and threshed, and cleaned by running through a wheat fan. 

In removing the grass, cut for seed, to the threshing floor, 
a sled, with broad shelving, should be used, over the bottom of 
which a wagon sheet should be spread, in order to save all the 
seed that may shatter out. When in a proper state to haul to 
the threshing floor, the seed shatters out very easily, and con- 
siderable waste would be unavoidable in loading and unloading 
from a wagon. But if carefully gathered up with the hands, 
and laid on a sled, with broad shelving and a sheet thereon, but 
little loss would occur- 

Having described the method of saving seed, I will now 
proceed to describe the manner in which the ground should be 
prepared for its reception. This should be done by removing 
logs, brush, leaves, and rubbish of all kinds, so as to allow the 
seed, when sown, to come in contact with the soil. If it do not 
do so, it cannot vegetate. To sow upon ground, which is coat- 
ed over with leaves, and rubbish, will be only a waste of seed. 



243 

The necessity of cleaning up the ground so completely as to 
admit such a portion of the seed to come in contact with the 
soil as to give the grass a good set, cannot be too strongly im- 
pressed upon all, who desire to convert forests into wood- 
land pastures. No greater portion of the forest should be at- 
tempted to be cleared up, in any one year, than can be thor- 
oughly prepared for the reception of the seed; and the portion 
which is cleared up, should always be sowed late in December 
or in the months of January or February, after the ground is 
prepared, in order to prevent nimble-will (a worthless kind of 
grass) from anticipating the more valuable grasses. (If this 
grass once gets possession of the ground, it renders the intro- 
duction of blue grass much more difficult.) 

The following method of preparing ground for the reception 
of grass seed is recommended. During the summer and fall 
all the logs, on that portion of the woodland, intended to be 
sown in grass, the ensuing winter, should be cut, and put in 
heaps; and all the brush and coarse litter should also be piled. 
This should be completed before the falling ef the leaves, which, 
in the rich lands, takes place soon after the first hard frost. 
After the leaves shall have fallen, and become sufficiently dry 
to burn, they may be set on fire, during a dry time, when the 
logs, brush, weeds and leaves will all burn, with only a little at- 
tention in putting together the fragments of the logs and brush. 
If the fall is as dry as that season of the year usually is, this 
burning will leave the ground sufficiently clean for the recep- 
tion of grass seed. If the fall should be too wet to burn the 
leaves, the brush and log heaps should still be burnt (as the 
fall season is never too wet for this) and an opportunity for 
burning the leaves, must be sought in February, if the weather 
will admit, but if the leaves should not become dry enough to 
burn, in this month, or early in March, the only alternative will 
be to rake them in heaps, or rows, and sow the spaces between. 
If the other part of the ground becomes well set, the grass 
will soon spread over the space, occupied by the leaves, after 
they shall have rotted. 

If the leaves and logs &lc. are burnt in the fall the grass 
seed may be sowed towards the last of December or any time 
in January, without any clanger of its germinating before the 
warm weather sets in, in the spring. The next thing to be 



244 

done, after the grass seed is sown, is to clear the ground of a 
sufficient portion of the standing timber, and this work may 
be commenced immediately after a part of the ground is sow- 
ed. This process ought generally to follow the sowing, if the 
leaves &c. are burnt in the fall, otherwise the timber, brush &c. 
will be an obstruction in sowing of the seed. To fit the ground 
for a vigorous growth of blue grass, about two thirds of the 
shade of the natural forest should be removed. To accom- 
plish this nearly the whole growth of timber, except that 
which is suitable for rails, and particularly that which is crook- 
ed and unsightly, should either be cut down or deadened. That 
which is intended to be deadened (including all trees over ten 
inches in diameter which will die the first season by girdling) 
should be left standing till the month of May, when they 
should be deadened. The cutting of the residue should com- 
mence as soon as convenient after the seed is sown, and pro- 
gress during the winter and spring, at all leisure times. It is 
particularly important, that the sugar trees should be cut, be- 
cause they are injurious to the growth of blue grass, and can- 
not be killed, the first season, by girdling them. All the wood 
cut upon the ground, sowed in grass, should be hauled off for 
the winters firewood; or if there is a surplus, it may be corded 
-up, on the ground. The brush may be piled and burnt,* or if 
more convenient, suffered to lie till the ensuing fall, as it will 
be no material injury to the grass. No injury will result from 
wagons, teams &c. passing over the ground, after the seed is 
sowed. On the contrary, the more the ground is tread the 
better the seed will take. 

If it so happens, that the leaves cannot be burnt, in the 
woods, in consequence of the wet weather, it will become ne- 
cessary to clear the ground of brush, as well as leaves, before 
the seed can be sown. This may delay the sowing till late in 
February, or even till the middle of March. It will be much 
better to submit to this delay, rather than sow before the 
ground is properly prepared. Seed sown late in March will 
succeed very well, if the season is favorable, but there is ai- 



*When brush or logs are burnt on the ground, the ashes should be 
carefully scraped up and scattered over the adjacent ground, or haul- 
ed to some adjacent field for manure. Grass seed will readily grow 
upon these burnt spots, after the ashes are removed, but not before. 



245 

ways a risk to be encountered, as a very dry spring would 
prove fatal to grass sowed so late. It is always desirable, 
therefore, if possible, to have the seed sowed by the first of 
March. In more northern latitudes it may doubtless be sowed, 
at a later period, with safety. 

For orchard grass the ground should, in all respects, be pre- 
pared in the same manner as for blue grass, except that it will 
do well in a thicker growth of timber; but it will be improved 
in quality by having the natural forest as well opened as is ne- 
cessary for blue grass. 

The leaves of oak timber do not drop sufficiently early to be 
burnt the same fall. The crop of the previous year might be 
burnt in the month of April or May, preceding the time of 
sowing seed, or, if not too much decayed, (oak leaves are very 
slow in rotting) they could be more advantageously burnt late 
in the fall, and the sowing may take place in December follow- 
ing, at which time the few leaves, of the new crop, which 
will have been shed, after the burning, will not be sufficient to 
prevent the seed from coming sufficiently in contact with the 
earth to cause them to vegetate. The only danger would be, 
that the leaves, falling the ensuing winter and spring, might 
smother the young grass. I incline to think, that orchard 
grass would penetrate the leaves, and receive little or no injury, 
by their falling upon the ground upon which this seed had been 
sown. But having no practical knowledge, on this subject, 
I would suggest that it would be safest to test the matter by 
an experiment, made in a small way, from which little incon- 
venience would result, if it do not succeed. 

A very intelligent and experienced farmer, in the grass 
growing region of Kentucky, recommends the following plan 
for setting woodland in blue grass. Burn all the logs, brush, 
and coarse rubbish, and deaden, or cut off, and haul from the 
ground a sufficient portion of the less valuable timber, during 
the summer and fall; sow the ground in January, and turn all 
the stock on the ground, and feed them there, during the win- 
ter and spring, until the seed begins to vegetate, and then turn 
them off. 

According to this plan, it is designed that the stock, by- 
tramping the ground, shall cut the leaves and fine rubbish to 
pieces, and bring the seed in contact with the earth, and so 



246 

cover it as to make it vegetate. If the ground is thoroughly 
tramped over every part of it, the desired object will certainly 
be obtained. Horned cattle are the best for this purpose; and 
where the ground is level, and convenient to the place from 
which the fodder, for feeding them, is to be hauled, the plan 
will doubtless answer very well. But in many cases it will be 
wholly impracticable. If, for instance, the fodder be at a 
great distance from the place, which is intended to be set in 
grass; or if the land lies very rolling; or is so full of stumps 
or trees that the vehicle, on which the fodder is transported, 
cannot conveniently pass among them; or if there be but few 
cattle to feed. These, and other objections to this plan, which 
might be mentioned, such as the want of perfect regularity in 
the distribution of the fodder, over every part of the ground, 
renders it less eligible, under some circumstances, than the one 
I have recommended. It is attended with more labor, and 
will be less effectual, than the other which, if the ground be 
well freed from rubbish, and sufficiently cleared, will be cer- 
tain to secure a complete set of grass over every part of it. 

Another method of setting land in blue grass, is to feed blue 
grass, and timothy hay upon the ground, intended to be set. 
This will be found to be a very effectual plan as to all the 
woodland, upon which much feeding shall take place. But it 
is liable to the objections, which have been urged against the 
other. 

The quantity of blue grass seed, usually sowed per acre, is 
whit is commonly called a bushel , that is ten pounds of stripped 
seed. Seven and a half pounds, cleaned in the way I have 
recommended, would be more than equal to ten pounds of 
stripped seed; and is as much as need be sown per acre. But 
as blue grass is of slow growth, and is sometimes smothered by 
a luxuriant growth of annual weeds, I would recommend, that, 
in addition to the blue grass seed, one quart of clean timothy 
seed, and one quart of clover seed be sown upon each acre. 
The blue grass seed being much lighter, and of a more chaffy 
nature than clover and timothy seed, should be sowed by itself. 
The two latter may be mixed together, and should be sowed 
in a contrary direction from the other. In this way it will be 
scarcely possible that any spot of ground would be entirely 
missed. The clover and timothy will come forward much 



247 

quicker than blue grass, and will have a tendency to keep 
down the luxuriant growth of annual weeds, which are so com- 
mon in our rich lands. Besides, if it becomes necessary to 
pasture the woodland the first year to prevent the young grass 
from being smothered, cattle will much more readily eat down 
the weeds, when mixed with clover and timothy, than where 
they stand alone. Orchard grass seed should be sowed alone, 
and one bushel of clean seed to the acre. 

A difference of opinion prevails as to whether woodland pas- 
tures ought to be pastured at all, during the first year. An 
experienced farmer, to whom I have already referred, recom- 
mends that in the month of June all the stock of the planta- 
tion, paiticularly cattle, should be turned on the grass, sowed 
the previous winter, and suffered to remain until they shall 
have grazed it close, and then should be taken off, and not 
again suffered to go on till the following year. 

Another farmer, equally intelligent and respectable and al- 
so residing in a part of the State, where it is a common practice 
to put woodland in grass, insists, that no stock should be suf- 
fered to run on newly set land the first year, nor until after the 
grass shall have gone to seed the second year. 

The former gentleman says, that about the first of June 
"the young grass will be up from six to ten inches high, being 
in appearance quite slender and weakly, and which, if permit- 
ted to remain much longer, without being grazed off, will fall 
with its own weight; will mildew, rot and die, root and branch, 
at least in a great measure, especially if the shade covering 
the ground be considerable. 

My own experience induces me to believe, that there is no 
danger of the young grass dying for the want of pasturing, 
except under the circumstances, stated in italics, at the close 
of the above quotation, If a rank growth of weeds do not en- 
danger the young grass, it would certainly be best not to turn 
any stock upon it the first year. To guard against such a 
growth of weeds as much as possible, blue grass seed, mixed 
with clover and timothy, should be sowed early. The blue 
glass may be sowed in December or January, but as clover is 
liable to be killed by a severe frost, it should not be sowed be- 
fore the middle of February ; and timothy maybe sowed, mix- 
ed with clover seed. The two last grasses spring up very 



248 

quick, after the weather becomes warm, and will tend greatly 
to keep the weeds in check. I have these grasses now grow- 
ing, (21st May) among blue grass, sowed early in March, ten 
inches high, and they have, by their luxuriant growth, kept 
down the weeds so much as to leave no apprehension of their 
smothering the blue grass. There is no danger of timothy and 
clover doing any harm, in this respect, if not more than one 
quart of each is sowed to the acre, provided the timber is suffi- 
ciently thinned out to enable the blue grass to attain a vigor- 
ous growth. 

But it is proper to remark, that the present season has been 
an uncommonly forward one, and very seasonable, and clover 
and timothy have had an unusually rapid growth. The weeds, 
however, have had an equal advantage in this respect. If my 
seed had been sowed a month earlier, the grass would have 
been still more ahead of the weeds. 

Yet if there should be any danger of the young grass being 
smothered, it would be proper to turn on cattle, and pasture it 
off quickly, about the middle of June, or earlier, if the season 
has been a forward one. In colder climates the time of pastu- 
ring the young grass should of course, be somewhat later. A 
time should be chosen for this purpose, when the soil has not 
been rendered soft by rains, lest an injury should be done to 
the tender roots of the young grass. If the ground is very 
rolling, the injury to youug grass, by the treading of stock, 
would be much greater than if the ground were level. 

Newly set woodland pastures should be kept perfectly free 
from stock, during the winter next after it was sowed, and un- 
til the blue grass shall have run up to seed. And during the 
subsequent years, so long as it is intended to be kept in pasture, 
stock ought to be turned off early in February, and not suffer- 
ed to go on again till the grass begins to shoot up to head. 
Thus treated, it will afford much more pasture than if suffered 
to be grazed, when very young. Blue grass, intended for win- 
ter feeding, should not be pastured later than the first of July. 
If pasture is abundant, it would be still better not to pasture it 
at all, during the summer or fall, but keep it in reserve for win- 
ter feeding. Treated in this way, it becomes exceedingly 
rank, and covers the ground with a very thick coat of herbage 
for winter use. 



249 

Having now gone through the process of setting woodland 
in grass, I will conclude with a few remarks, as to the best 
method of freeing such pastures from various weeds, and shrub- 
bery. Most of the annuals will soon give way to the grass, 
without any effort on the part of the husbandman. If rny re- 
main, a single cutting, aftei the grass is well set, will gener- 
ally extirpate them. The by-ennials, such as mullins and 
thistles, &,c. should be carefully cut before their seed ripens. 
As there may be a store of seed in the ground, all will not 
come up the first year; besides these do not run up to stalk till 
the second year, and hence many small ones may escape ob- 
servation at the first cutting. The operation must be repeated 
as often as any are perceived running up to stalk. The num- 
ber will lessen every year, and, finally, diligence and perse- 
verance will destroy them all, except the thistles, growing from 
seed, furnished by kind neighbors. These must be remonstra- 
ted with, and persuaded to join in the good work of destroying 
4i weed so exceedingly injurious to pastures. 

The per-ennials are more difficult to conquer. The Briers^ 
if any, should be cut close to the ground, in August, (the dark 
of the moon need not be waited for,) and burnt clean, so that 
sheep will not be prevented from going among the stubble to 
nip the young shoots, when they first come up. These use- 
ful animals will be "laborers without hire," and will do their 
Work effectually, in the course of a year or two, after once 
cutting and burning the old briers. 

Elders, iron weeds and some others are more difficult to sub- 
due. These should be cut annually, about the month of Au- 
gust — elders more frequently. Once cutting will not do. Vig- 
iience and perseverance, with the aid of cattle and sheep 
stock, will finally enable the industrious husbandman to extir- 
pate from his woodland pastures all noxious weeds and shrub- 
bery of every description. Nothing tends so much to prevent 
weeds from infesting woodland pastures as to keep them well 
cleaned up. Every winter or early in the spring all the fallen 
timber, brush &c. should be carefully removed or burnt. Suf- 
fering the grass to get a good start, in the spring, before stock 
is turned on, has also a very useful effect in keeping down 
weeds, and will moreover greatly increase the amount of food, 

to be derived from a given quantity of ground. 

W 



250 

After a few years the timothy and clover will have given 
way to the blue grass, and now, in the spring of the year, one 
of the most beautiful sights will be presented that ever eye be- 
held— a rich soil, sparsely set with straight and beautiful tim- 
ber, covered with a clean and uninterrupted turf of verdant 
grass. About the latter end of April, a woodland pasture, 
which is perfectly clean, and free from weeds, presents the 
most delightful view I have ever beheld. But the richness 
and exuberance of the scene is increased, when, a little later 
in the spring, the grass shall have run up to seed. The tall 
grass, of one uniform heighth, waving in the wind, presents a 
richness and exuberance of appearance, that cannot fail to 
charm all that behold it. 

But the beauty of the scene is not the only advantage. The 
annual value of woodland pastures, in their highest state of 
improvement, per acre, is equal to the interest on fifty dollars, 
and, therefore, this additional value will have been given to the 
land. 



OX THE CULTIVATION OP THE LOCUST. 

The yellow locust is a native of America, and was first in- 
troduced into Europe by John Robin, in honor of whom it was 
called Robinia. The rapid growth, and great durability and 
strength of the locust,- and the ease with which it may be cul- 
tivated; the small space of ground, ntcessary for this purpose; 
and its admirable adaptation for fencing, shipbuilding, and ma- 
ny other uses, renders its cultivation an object of the greatest 
importance. Its cultivation will be peculiarly important to 
portions of the Great West, in which prairies are so much 
more extensive than woodlands. 

It may be propagated from the seed, or by suckers, spring- 
ing up from the roots of trees, which have been cut down] 
The latter mode of cultivation is attended with the least trou- 
ble, and has the advantage of bringing them forward somewhat 
more rapidly than where they are propagated from the seed. 
Besides there will be a greater certainty of getting a good 
stand of young locusts, than where reliance shall be had upon 
the planting of seed. But as the locust can be cultivated from 
suckers, only where this valuable tree is already growing, the 
other method must necessarily be resorted to, in those parts of 
our country, where the locust is not found, in a native state. 
Both modes of cultivation will, therefore, be explained. In a 
country in which the locust already exists, the following meth- 
od may be adopted. Select a convenient piece of ground r or 
separate and distinct pieces, on various parts of the plantation., 
where locusts are growing, not too wide asunder, and pretty 



252 

well distributed over the ground to be set in locusts. Let all 
other species of timber be cut down, and the land carefully 
cultivated, during one summer, with such a crop as will leave 
the land in good condition for sowing grass the succeeding 
spring. Hemp, tobacco, pumpkins &c. are convenient, and 
suitable crops, for this purpose. After these crops are remov- 
ed, in the fall, let the ground be well ploughed and harrowed, 
or brushed, so as to leave a smooth surface. One object of 
this preparation of the ground is to break and wound as many 
of the roots of the locusts, left standing, as possible, so that 
suckers will more readily spring up, in sufficient numbers. A- 
bout the middle of February, for latitude 39 Q , and somewhat 
later, for more northern, and earlier for more southern cli 
mates, the ground, thus prepared, should be sowed with red 
clover seed, one gallon to the acre. One month after the 
grass seed is sowed, say from the middle of March to the mid- 
dle of April, at a time when the ground is well settled, after 
the frosts are out, all the locust trees should be cut down, and 
the brush and timber removed. If this last operation is com- 
pleted before the locusts begin to bud forth, in the spring, it 
will be in good time; and it should be as recently before this 
tree begins to vegetate as may be, as this will facilitate the 
shooting up of suckers.* Nothing more need be done but to 
enclose the ground, with a good fence, to protect the young 
shoots from stock. This is indispensable, as all kinds of stock 
are fond of the leaves and tender sprouts of the young locusU 
and would utterly destroy them if allowed to get at them. 

When ground is prepared as directed, and the locust trees 
cut down, at the proper time, an immense number of suckers 
will shoot up among the clover, and will grow off rapidly with 
tall and straight bodies. The grass, having been sown very 
thickly, will keep down the weeds, but will be no obstruction 
to the growth of the suckers; and these, standing so close to- 
gether, will be prevented from branching, and, consequently., 
will require no trimming. Locusts require protection from 
stock, not only when young, but even after they have grown 
to the heighth of twelve or fifteen feet. Cattle are so fond of 
browzing on the leaves and tender twigs, in the spring and 



* Locusts, when cut in the fall or winter, will put up but few suck- 
ers. 



253 

summer, that they will bend them down to get at the tops, 
even when of considerable size. I cannot, therefore, too strong- 
ly urge the necessity of ample protection to a young locust 
orchard. Indeed when so large as to be too strong to be borne 
down by stock, it would still be advisable to refrain from pas- 
turing the ground, on which they are growing, because, if the 
ground is kept light, by leaving it unpastured, locusts will grow 
so much more rapidly as will more than compensate for the 
loss of the pasturage. 

In two or three years the less thrifty trees will be overtop- 
ped by those of more vigorous growth, and will begin to die, 
showing decay first in their top branches. To prevent these 
decaying suckers from absorbing from the earth a portion of the 
nourishment, which would otherwise be given to the more vig- 
orous plants, they should, every spring, be carefully cut down, 
close to the ground. In this way the locust orchard will be 
gradually thinned out, and room be afforded for the young trees, 
still left standing. After these shall have attained a sufficient 
size for stakes, the less thrifty ones, which are overtopped by 
those of mare vigorous growth, should, every spring, be cut out 
for stakes; and, if large enough, for riders, and ground rails 
for the common worm fence. This process must be continued 
as long as any of the young trees are over topped, and show 
indications of decoy, in their top branches. A locust grove, 
thus cultivated, will never want trimming except the exterior 
trees, and they only on the side next to the open ground. From 
all the residue, the small lateral branches will soon decay and 
dropoff, and a knife need never be applied to them. 

Young locusts are very subject, in Kentucky, to be injured 

by an insect called the borer, which penetrates the bark, and 

bores out holes of considerable size, in the wood of the tree. 

All that are much affected by this insect are checked in their 

growth, in proportion to the extent of the injury. Those most 

injured soonest decay, and will, of course, be first cut out; and 

soon in succession. Those that are but slightly affected may 

attain considerable size, and may be applied to many useful 

purposes; but among the great number that will spring up, 

from the roots of the old growth, enough will probably escape 

serious injury to cover the ground with as many as can grow 

to advantage. These will flourish, and come to perfection; 

W* 



•254 

and may be suffered to grow to such size as may, under all 
circumstances, be deemed most expedient, whilst all the de- 
fective ones may be cut out for present use* 

I have now growing, upon my plantation, between fifteen 
hundred and two thousand locusts, cultivated in the manner 
herein directed, from 10 to 25 years old. From those most ad- 
vanced, I cut out stakes for re-setting my fences, as required 
from time to timo, so that in a few years I shall have 
all my fencing supplied with locust stakes. When this is ac- 
complished, I will commence cutting out such of the locusts 
(having now attained a sufficient size) as show indications 
of decay, in their top branches, for rails; and thus by thinning 
out my groves, as occasion shall require, will afford room for 
those that show no marks of decay. 

Locusts, cultivated as herein directed, may stand, upon an 
average, within twelve feet of each other, after having been 
properly thinned out, and consequently a little over 300 to 
the acre. At the age of twenty-five years, if they shall have 
been completely protected from stock, and the ground not pas- 
tured, we may safely calculate upon each acre, if all the lo- 
custs were cut down, producing five thousand rails. Thus ten 
acres of land, in twenty-five years, will have produced fifty 
thousand rails, besides the stakes, which will, in the m?an 
time, have been cut out, being more than sufficient, including 
the tops of the locusts, cut for rails, to stake five thousand pan- 
nels of fence. Here then we have rails and stakes of the 
most lasting kind of timber, from ten acres of ground, suffi- 
cient to make ail the fencing on a plantation of considerable 
size. And the same ten acres, from which these were ob- 
tained, will in twenty five years (a term in which no new rails 
will be required) produce as many more, with no othor labor or 
expense, except keeping the ground well enclosed. 

Thus, it will be seen, that only ten acres of ground will be 
necessary to furnish, in perpetuity, rails and stakes for a plan- 
tation, requiring five thousand pannels of fencing. 

it may happen that in the place selected for a locust grove 
the old locusts may not stand so regularly distributed as to fill 
the entire space with suckers. In that case the vacant places 
may be reserved for meadow, and thus no ground will lie idle, 
but where suckers are growing the grass should be left undis- 



255 

turbed. This growing- up annually, and falling on the ground, 
will increase its fertility and keep it light, and thus hasten the 
growth of the young locusts. 

If a plantation shall afford no convenient place, upon which 
a sufficient number of locusts are growing, in a state of nature, 
to cultivate them, upon the principles herein explained, then 
the following plan is recommended. Let a piece of ground be 
selected, or more than one (if convenient) so situated as to af- 
ford the greatest facilities for approaching it, from all parts of 
the plantation, say ten acres, and let it be prepared, in all res- 
pects as recommended above. In the spring, next after t lie 
grass has been sowed, which, if convenient, may have been 
sown the 'preceding fall, the whole of the ground should be 
planted with yellow locusts, in straight lines, each way, at the 
distance of two rods apart. The trees planted should be of 
thrifty growth, and from two to four years old. The proper 
time of planting is after the sap begins to rise, which is indi- 
cated by the showing of the bud, in such state of forwardness 
as to be ready to put forth small leaves. The locust is late in 
budding, and in this climate (latitude 39°) is rarely forward 
enough to plant till late in April, li" planted in a proper man- 
ner, and at the proper time, it is so certain, that scarcely one 
in twenty will fail. But if planted before the sap is in free 
circulation many of the plants will fail. It is alwavs best, to 
plant when the ground is in a moist condition, and I therefore, 
prefer planting soon after a rain. In digging up the young 
locusts, for planting, care should be taken not to bruise the 
roots. To avoid this, a sharp axe should be used to cut off the 
large rots, and all that are bruised should be carefully trimmed, 
by having the bruised parts cut off" with a sharp knife. The 
lateral branches should be trimmed off, leaving onlv a part of 
the top, proportioned to the extent of the roots. They should 
be set firmly in the ground, but not more than an inch or two 
deeper than they naturally grow. The holes should be dug 
wide, so as to admit the roots to take their proper position, ta- 
king care not to double ortobend them. Planted, at the dis- 
tance recommended above, will give forty to the acre, and four 
hundred to ten acres. If any should die, their places must be sup- 
plied the next spring, and at that timo, I would recommend to 
put around each tree half a bushel of half rotted chip manure. 



256 

This will keep the grass from binding the young trees, and 
hasten their growth. The ground, thus planted, may be kept 
for meadow for four years, or somewhat longer, if the trees 
shall not have grown thriftily. The ground should now be 
ploughed, in the fall of the year, and cultivated carefully the 
succeeding year, so as not to destroy the grass sod ; and pre 
pared in the fall or early in the winter, for again sowing down 
in clover in February, as herein before directed. From the 
middle of March to the first of April, all the locusts should be 
cut down, and the timber and brush removed * Nothing now 
remains to be done but to pursue the directions, herein given, 
in relation to suckers, springing up from the roots of locusts, 
which had been cut down. 

To carry out this plan of raising locusts will require time r 
and the exercise of patience. But it must be recollected, that 
during the time the husbandman is waiting for his young lo- 
custs to attain a sufficient age to be cut down, he will be an- 
nually deriving profitable crops from his land; and, at the end 
of the process, he will obtain a sufficient number of stakes and 
poles for riders or ground rails, to compensate for all his extra 
labor; and, besides, he will have his ground more regularly set 
with locusts than could be accomplished in any other way. 

The roots of locusts extend out iaterally to a considerable 
distance; and sprouts will spring up sufficiently thick, over the 
entire ten acres, and stand more regularly, than they would do,, 
in the general, were you to depend upon cutting down locusts* 
found growing in their natural state. 

But neither of the foregoing methods of cultivating locusts 

will be practicable, in. a country where locusts are not natives 

of the soil; and hence the necessity of raising locusts from the 

seed, in such situations.. 

For this purpose new or second years ground, or land which 

has been lying in clover, will answer best. If there be none 

*In a valuable work, on the cultivation of the Robinia Pseudo aca- 
cia, by W. Withers, Holt, Norfolk. England, the following method of 
cultivating the acacia is recommended. "•The acacias are planted 
in a field, in rows which are fifty feet apart. In the following year a 
furrow is traced with a plough, three feet beyond the rows of trees, of 
sufficient depth to touch ancl graze the surface of the roots. Short- 
ly after a great number of young plants start from the wounds made 
by the plough-" (p. 78.) This method is objectionable, because by 
leaving the old trees standing, they will overshadow the young shoots, 
and prevent them from attaining a good shape and size. 



257 

such, land which ha3 been lying in blue grass for some years 
may be substituted. It should be prepared by ploughing the 
preceding fall, and pulverizing the soil as perfectly as possible, 
In this latitude (39° N.) the seed should be planted from the 
middle to the last of April. If planted too early there is danger 
of the young plants being destroyed by severe frosts. They 
are not as tender as beans, but a pretty severe frost will destroy 
them. It is better to avoid the risk by not planting till after 
the 20th of April, in this climate, and later in proportion, if 
planted farther north. If planted too late they are more sub- 
ject to be injured by drouth. 

Where the ground is properly prepared, and pulverized, it 
should be laid off five feet each way, and the seed dropped and 
covered like corn, except that they should not be covered more 
than an inch deep, and great care should be taken to leave no 
clods on the hill. Eight or ten seed may be dropped in each 
hill, to increase the chances of producing at least three plants, 
but they should be somewhat scattered, to prevent them from 
being crowded; and, if too many come up, should be thinned 
out as soon as the danger of frosts is over. To facilitate 
the dropping of the seed, they should be stirred in ashes or 
gypsum to dry them, and the surplus ashes or gypsum sifted 

out. 

Seed may be prepared for planting as follows : They should 
be gathered the preceding fall, and kept dry till spring. I ap- 
prehend, though I have no experience, that if kept dry, they 
will grow as well after being kept a number of years. Three 
days before the time of planting, they should be put in a tight 
vessel, and boiling water poured on them which should be suf- 
fered to remain twenty four hours; it should then be poured off, 
and the boiling water renewed, and suffered to remain the 
same time; boiling water should again be poured on the seed, 
for the third time, as in the two first instances. Most of the 
seeds will now have bursted the hard envelope, by which the 
kernal is surrounded, and they will be in a proper condition to 
be planted.* 

*I was taught the above method of preparing locust seed for speedy 
vegetation, by the late Col. William Fitzhugh, of Washington coun- 
ty, State of Maryland, some twenty years since. I made trial of the 
method recommended, at the time, and found it to succeed very well. 
But as I have since cultivated locusts altogether from suckers, grow- 



258 

The seedlings should be cultivated, the first year, with great 
care, suffering no weeds to grow, and thinning them out so as 
not to leave more than two or three in a hill. The ground 
should be left as level as possible, at the close of the cultiva- 
tion, in the fall; and for this purpose it would be proper to use 
a light cultivator, or harrow, in completing the process. In 
the spring the ground should be sowed with clover seed, as 
herein before directed. The young locusts should now be far- 



ing from the roots of trees, which have been cut down, I concluded to 
make a more accurate experiment, upon the best method of causing 
locust seed to vegetate, than 1 had hitherto done. 

On the 11th of April 1844, 1 divided about a quarter of a gill of 
seed into three equal parts, as nearly as 1 could, without actual ad- 
measurement. Upon one of these parts I poured boiling water, and 
let it remain three hours. Upon another part I poured boiling water, 
and after standing one hour, poured it off, and repeated the boiling 
water, and suffered it to remain two hours. Upon the third portion of 
seed, I poured boiling water ; and in one hour poured it off; and re- 
peated the boiling water, permitting it to remain an hour; and then 
repeated the boiling water for the third time, suffering it to remain 
on the seed one hour. I now planted the three parcels of seed, in sep- 
erate rows, in a bed previously prepared, on which a brush heap had 
been burnt. In three weeks, 1 found thai 97 plants had come up from 
the seed which had been exposed to boiling water only once; 56 of 
those which had been twice exposed to boiling water; and 82 of those 
which had been three times exposed. From this experiment it seem- 
ed as if a single exposure to boiling water was all that was necessary. 
But as more plants came from the seed, which were three times ex- 
posed to boiling water than from those which had been only twice ex- 
posed, the experiment seemed not to be conclusive. I concluded that 
the different results might have arisen, in part, from the unequal 
quantities of seed ; and in part from there being more defective seed 
in the parcels producing the fewest plants. I therefore, made another 
experiment as follows : 

On the 30 1 h of April I selected from a large parcel eighty seeds as 
perfect as possible, taking none but what would readily sink in cold 
water. Twenty of these I planted in a row in the same bed, without 
soaking, or any exposure to boiling water ; twenty were put in boil- 
ing water, and the water kept boiling for five minutes; twenty were 
put in boiling water, and suffered to remain one hour ; and upon the 
remaining twenty, boiling water was repeated, at the expiration of 
an hour, and suffered to stand till it became cold. The whole were 
then planted. At the end of three weeks, I found that not a plant 
had grown from either the seed not soaked, or that which had been 
boiled for five minutes. From the seed, upon which boiling water had 
been poured once, fourteen plants were produced ; from those upon 
which boiling water had been repeated, a second time, nineteen 
plants had been produced. I inferred, from this experiment, that the 
exposure of locust seed to boiling water for five minutes had destroy- 
ed its vegetating power. That pouring boiling water on it once, would 
cause it to vegetate pretty well, but that a repetition of the boiling 
water would make it vegetate better. In every instance I used 
rain water. A month has now elapsed since I planted the seed above 
mentioned, and not a plant has yet sprung from the seed not soaked, 
or from that boiled five minutes. 



259 

ther thinned out, scTas to leave only one in a hill, which should, 
of course, be the most thriving, and straightest plant; and, if 
any of those left should need it, they should be supported by 
driving down a small stake, and tying them to it. Nothing 
more will be necessary but to protect them from stock, and 
thin them out, as directed, where suckers are allowed to spring 
up from the stumps and roots of trees, cut down as heretofore 
explained. 

An acre of ground will now contain, if none be missing, 
1742 plants, but as this quantity of land will ultimately sus- 
tain only about 300 trees, if one plant in six should escape be- 
ing injured, by the borer, or other casuality, there will still be 
enough left. 

If, instead of planting five feet apart, the seed should be 
planted only four feet each way, there would be 2722 hills to 
the acre; and if one plant in nine should escape being seri- 
ously injured, there would still be a sufficient number left. The 
only objection to planting, at this nearer distance, is the dan- 
ger of breaking down the tender plants, during the process of 
cultivation. With proper care this might be avoided, and the 
distance of four, instead of five feet be adopted with decided 
advantage. 

When locusts shall have attained a proper size for rails, 
which will be in about twenty-five or thirty years, and are 
needed for that purpose, they should all be cut down, — large 
and small — beginning on one side or end of the field, so that 
the suckers may grow up, without being overshadowed by trees 
left standing. This should always be done, in the spring of 
the year, and the timber and brush removed from the ground. 
A new crop of locusts will spring up, in the place of those cut 
down, and will be large enough for use before the rails, obtain- 
ed from the first crop, will have worn out. Thus the same 
piece of ground will furnish a permanent supply of rails to 
fence in the farm. 

The following estimate will afford some idea of the profits 
arising from the cultivation of the locust. The value of rails, 
made of the better kinds of timber, growing on the rich lands 
of Kentucky, may be estimated at three dollars per hundred. 
Locust rails will last more than twice as long, and consequent- 
ly are worth at least six dollars per hundred. Three hundred 



260 

trees, growing upon one acre of ground, at the expiration of 
twenty-five years, will produce five thousand rails, and be 
worth, at a low estimate, three hundred dollars. The rent of 
an acre of ground, for twenty-five years, at three dollars per 
annum, will be seventy-five dollars. Allowing the stakes cut 
from among the growing locusts, and the top branches of those 
cut down for rails, to be a compensation for the trouble of rtar- 
ing and protecting them, and there will be a clear profit of two 
hundred and twenty-five dollars per acre. To this should be 
added the saving of labor, in making and repairing of fences, 
with rails of such great durability, compared with that which 
would be necessary to keep in repair fences made with rails, 
which would not last half as long. 

But this is not the only saving. In the fertile parts of Ken- 
tucky, where good rail timber is not very abundant, it is neces- 
sary to keep one third of a moderate sized farm in woods, to 
supply rail timber and fuel. A few acres, planted with locusts, 
after they shall have attained a suitable age, will supercede 
the necessity of keeping woodland for rail timber, and only 
enough for fuel need be reserved. A large portion of what 
now lies in forest may be converted into arable land, and thus 
the profits of the farm may be much increased. 

In the foregoing estimate, I have supposed locust rails would 
last only twice as long as those made of the ordinary timber of 
our rich lands. But from various proofs of the durability of this 
timber, contained in the work of Mr. Withers, before referred 
to, I am satisfied I might have safely estimated that one 
set of locust rails, would outlast three of the ordinary 
kind. At page 87, Mr. Withers gives a well authenticated ac- 
count of a locust post, fifteen inches square, which had stood in 
the ground seventy eight years, and was perfectly sound "with 
the exception of half an inch at the place where it had stood 
even with the surface of the ground/" Other very decided 
proofs of the great durability of this timber are afforded by 
the work of Mr. Withers, to which I do not now deem it neces- 
sary to refer. 

Estimating, then, that one set of locust rails will last as long 
as three sets of the ordinary kind, the profits arising from the 
cultivation of the locust, upon the data furnished above, will 
be very great, and beyond all comparison with those arising 



201 

from any other species of farming. I have hitherto spoken of 
the value of locust timber only for farming purposes. Mr. 
Withers has shown, that it is of great value for a variety of 
other purposes, and among others for ship building. And for 
this purpose, it is not only valuable for its great durability, but 
also on account of its great strength. From a series of exper- 
iments, made at the harbor of Brest, the great naval port of 
France, by the proper naval authorities, it was ascertained, 
that "the strength of acacia (locust) to oak is as 1427 to 820 — 
the elasticity is as 21 to 9." This shows its great superiority 
to oak, both as respects strength and elasticity, (p. 298.) 

The following extract will be found, at page 208, of Mr. 
Withers 1 work. It is taken from a treatise of Mr. Cobbett, on 
the locust. "It (locust timber) is absolutely indestructible by 
the powers of earth, air, and water. Its strength far surpass- 
es that of the very best of our spine oak. It is to this timber 
that the American ships owe so great a part of their superiority 
toours. The stanchions round the deck are made of locust; 
and while much smaller than the stanchions of oak, will resist 
a sea three times as heavy as the oak will. The tiller of the 
ship is made of locust, because it demands great strength, and 
is required not to be bulky. For the same reason the martin- 
gales of ships arc made of locusts; and if a ship had all its ribs, 
and beams, and knees of locust, it would be worth two common 
ships. Further, as to ship building, that important article, the 
trunnels, when they consist of locust, make the ship last, prob- 
ably, twice as long as if the trunnels consisted of oak. 1 ' 

Trunnels are the pins, which are used to fasten the side 
planks to the timbers of the ship. Mr. Cobbett says, "the 
hardest of our spine oak is picked out for the purpose, and, 
with all that, we know that the trunnel is the thing that first 
rots ; for the water, or at least the damp, will get in round the 
trunnel,. and between it and the plank, and if water or damp 
hang about oak, the oak will rot.' 1 ' 

The above extracts show the great importance of locust 

timber for ship building, and the great value of trunnels, made 

of the yellow locust. These, if prepared by splitting them 

out, of suitable size and length, and perfectly seasoned, would, 

probably, even at this time, be a profitable article for shipment 

to the great ports, in which ship building is carried on oxten- 

X 



262 

sively. And as locust timber, in consequence of the extent 
to which it is used, for ship building, rail roads, and other pur- 
poses, must become more and more scarce, along the Atlantic 
frontier, that which is grown in the west will soon be in great 
demand, and its value enhanced in a corresponding degree. 

Mr. Withers shows that for the purposes of fuel the locust 
is also very valuable. "Its wood is found to give out a much 
greater heat, during combustion, than that of any other tree." 
(p. 128.) This fact was ascertained by actual experiment. 
And the author of this essay can state, from experience, that 
even the smallest part of the brush of locusts, after a season- 
ing of one summer, makes a most excellent fuel, especially for 
kindling fires, heating ovens, stoves &c. 

Although the climate of England is not so favourable to the 
growth of the locust as ours, yet its cultivation there is deemed 
of the utmost consequence, as is shown by various parts of Mr. 
Withers' interesting work upon the acacia, or yellow locust. 

An idea may be formed of the growth of this useful timber, 
in England, compared with that of the Scotch fir, elm, ash, and 
birch by the following table, furnished by T. T. Vallence, Esq. 
and contained in Mr. Withers' work, page 246. The trees 
were seventeen years old, and the circumference of each was 
taken six feet from the ground. 







Heigl 


ith. 


Circumference. 


Acacia, or Locust 


24 feet 


33 inches. 


a 




34 




34 


a 




33 




23 


Scotch Fir 




32 
34 




27£ 
23 


Elm 




32 




17 


Ash 




33 
33 




17| 
19| 


u 




34 




24 


Birch 

The average 


heighth 


36 

of the locust, 


27f 
Scotch fir, elm, and ash 


was as follows: 




Heig 


hth. 


Circumference. 


Locust, 




30| 


feet 


26f inches. 


Scotch Fir, 




33 




25 


Elm, 
Ash, 




32£ 
33^ 




17£ 
22 



263 

The locust exceeds either of the others, in circumference, 
and falls but little below them in heigth. 

In the above table it will be seen that the locust compares 
very favorably with some of the most rapidly growing timber 
trees, in England. In the United States, it is believed its 
growth is much more rapid than it is in England. 

The annexed table exhibits the growth of five locusts, plan- 
ted in my yard, in April 1833, and consequently nearly eleven 
years have elapsed since they were planted. But as these 
trees were transplanted, when about three years old, they may 
be considered as of fourteen years growth. 

Heighth. Circumference. 

No. 1. - 40 feet 2&| inches. 

2. 43 30 

3. 41 - 26£ 

4. 4i 30£ 

5. 42 27£ 
Average heigth 42 f., average circumference 28 4-5 inches. 

When it is considered, that the above trees are three years 
younger than those mentioned in the tabic, furnished by Mr. 
T. T. Vallence, and that they probably lost one year by trans- 
planting, it will be perceived, that locusts are of a much more 
rapid growth in Kentucky than in England. 

In every point of view there is the strongest inducement for 
cultivating this invaluable timber: and the farmers of the Uni- 
led States cannot too soon direct their attention to this subject. 
It is pre-eminently important to the region of country, in 
which there is such an extent of rich prairie, a large portion 
of which is so distant from timbered land as to be almost use- 
less for purposes of cultivation. The great durability of lo- 
cust rails will justify their transportation, to more than double 
the distance to which those made of other timber could be haul- 
ed. Besides, by enclosing and securing against fire and stock, 
a small plantation of locust timber, it could be reared in the very 
midst of the largest prairies. A sod fence would probably be 
sufficient to secure the young trees from cattle till they should 
attain a sufficient size to secure them against their depreda- 
tions. 



ON GRAZING AND FEEDING CATTLE IN KENTUCKY, 

I cannot better illustrate this subject than by explaining, in 
detail, the practice of a very distinguished farmer and grazier 
of Bourbon county. Mr. II. has usually purchased most of 
the cattle, which he intends to feed, at such an age as will 
enable him to prepare them for market by the month of No- 
vember or December, in the year next after he obtains them; 
but he some times finds it necessary to keep a part of them till 
the following year. He intends, in future, to raise a consider- 
able number of stock cattle, from his own cows, his method of 
doing which, and the advantages he expects to derive from that 
practice, will be explained hereafter. 

Cattle, intended for grazing and feeding, may be purchased, 
at any time, during the year preceding that in which they 
are to be prepared for market, after the spring grass has grown 
sufficiently to afford a luxuriant pasture; and the earlier they 
are purchased, in that year, the better, provided the grazier 
has an abundance of good pasture. They are to be put 
upon blue grass (poa pratensis) immediately, at the rate of 
one head for three acres, of well set and cleared up wood- 
land pasture, from which all the small growth, and large tim- 
ber, not fit for rails, must have been cut down, or deadened. 

There is usually on grazing farms, a large portion of cleared 
land, set in grass, and it is best that the cattle should have the 
benefit of this, as well as the woodland pasture, to graze upon, 
but they should not be restricted to less than three acres each, 
for if more grass grows than they can consume, which is al- 
ways the case, when the seasons are favourable, it will remain 



265 

lor winter pasture. Cattle should never be removed frcm the 
field or field?, allotted them, during the pasturing season, be- 
cause it is important to keep them as quiet and still as possible, 
and experience shows, that removing them tends to make 
them less gentle, and to cause them to wander more in search 
of their food. If a large number are to be pastured, it is best 
to separate them into lots, not exceeding one hundred each, 
the number to be regulated by the size of their pasture ground, 
always allowing three acres for each head. In dividing them 
into lots, the largest cattle should be put in one range; the sec- 
ond size, in another, and so on. Being thus arranged they will 
not be so apt to drive off the weaker cattle from salt, in the 
summer, or corn in the winter. 

The cattle arc to be kept on their respective grazing grounds 
till the 10th day of December, when they are to be put in 
fields, on which they are to be fed during the winter. These 
fields should always be cleared ground, which is intended for 
future cultivation, so that they may receive the benefit of the 
manure, which drops from the cattle and hogs. When the 
grazing season is at an end, the cattle are to be carefullv ex- 
amined, and all those, which are intended to be butchered, the 
next year, are to be set apart for full feeding, and the residue 
are to be only half fed. Those that are to he full fed shoukl 
be separated into lots, from fifty to one hundred each, accord- 
ing to circumstances. The smaller number will be best, if 
there are the necessary conveniences for feeding, in small 
lots. Each lot must have txco fields to be fed upon, and the pro- 
cess of feeding will be as follows : 

Each steer must have daily as much corn, fed with the fod- 
der, as will be equal to half a bushel, shelled. This is what is 
called full 'feeding. Cattle not intended for market, the en- 
suing year, are fed half as much, which is called half feeding. 
Mr. II. in cutting up his corn, puts 14 by 16 hills in a shock, 
and five of. these (if the corn is tolerably good) will feed fifty 
head one day. But it is always safest to shuck and measure 
the corn, in several shocks, in different parts of each field, so 
as to ascertain their average product,* and feed so many shocks 
as will be equivalent to half a bushel of shelled corn, for each 
steer, for full feeding, and half as much to those cattle, which 
are to be only half fed. 



X 



*- 



266 

la feeding, a wagon is used, with a long low bed (about 20 
feet) so framed as that the fore part will rise above the fore 
wheels, -and with hoops over those behind, to keep the corn 
from. pressing on them. The bed, by means of shelving, ex- 
tending a little beyond the wheels, so as to afford a good width 
to hold the fodder. The wagon is drawn by four stout oxen. 
Two hands accompany the wagon, (some prefer three, two to 
hand up, and one to load) one stands on the wagon, whilst the 
other hands up the corn, The hand on. the wagon, commences 
loading on the forepart, laying up the corn as high as he can 
reach, and moving back, so as not to tread on the corn, but 
packing it down with his hands, as straight and regular as pos- 
sible. Thus loaded, more can be put upon the wagon, and the 
corn can be thrown off with more regularity and speed. The 
wagon is now driven to the field, in which the cattle are to be 
fed; and while one hand drives slowly across one side of the 
field, parallel with the fence, the other commences throwing off 
the corn, alternately, on each side, about four stalks in a place, 
and ten feet apart. When the first line is completed, a second 
is to be commenced, parallel with the first, and ten feet there- 
from. This is to be distributed like the first, and so on, in suc- 
cession, until the corn, at the different feedings, shall have 
been regularly distributed over the whole field. A similar 
process is now to be commenced, in a contrary direction, if con- 
venient; or in the same way with the first, if the ground and 
other circumstances render that most expedient, and so on until 
the time of feeding with corn shall have expired. 

This mode of distributing corn, fed to cattle, is intended to 
afford them sufficient room, without pressing too much upon 
each other, and thus wasting the corn and fodder, by treading 
it in the ground; and for the purpose of giving to every part 
cf the field a due proportion of manure. But if there are parts 
of the field, which require more manure than the others, a lar- 
ger proportion of the feeding should be performed, on these, in 
order to render every part of the field as nearly equal in fertili- 
ty as possible. 

There must be two fields for feeding each separate lot <oft 
cattle, and they should be fed alternately, day about, in each of" 
these fields. When commencing in the morning, one load of 
corn should be hauled and distributed before the cattlo are let 



267 

in, so that they may be engaged in feeding, while the second 
load is distributing. And as many loads must be hauled as will 
serve the cattle one day. 

When, on the next day, the cattle are removed to the second 
field for feeding, the hogs, which are to follow the cattle, must 
be turned into the field, in which the cattle were fed the day 
before. When cattle we full fed, two hogs for each steer is tho 
number that should follow the cattle. On the mornino- of the 
third day, before any corn is hauled into the field, in which the 
cattle were fed, on the first day, the hogs arc to be called into 
the field with the cattle, that is the field in which the cattle were 
fed on the second day, where they will immediately commence 
feeding on the offal; and the cattle may be called into the field, 
from which the hogs shall have been removed, as soon as one 
load of corn is distributed. The same process is to be observed 
daily, with both cattle and hogs, in relation to the several lots 
into which the cattle shall have been divided, but only one hog 
to each steer should follow cattle which are to be only half fed. 
On Sunday, instead of hauling out feed for the day, a sec- 
ond feed should be hauled on a third field, into which the cat- 
tle may be called, on Sunday morning, and the hogs into that in 
which the cattle were last fed. 

If a third field should not be convenient for this purpose, the 
hogs may be called into the field, in which the cattle were fed 
on Saturday morning, after they are done feeding, and left 
with them; and the Sunday feed for the cattle may be hauled 
into the field, from which the hogs have just been removed, 
and the cattle called in on Sunday morning. A separate field, 
for Sunday feeding, is to be preferred, if there be one, be- 
cause this admits of the cattle feeding the whole day, on Sat- 
urday, before the hogs are turned in; whereas, upon the other 
plan, the hogs will consume all the corn, which the cattle shall 
not have eaten, in the forepart of the day, and they will cr e t 
nothing more till Sunday morning. 

There should always be a gateway or bars between the dif- 
ferent feeding fields, and if the latter are adopted, they should 
be entirely taken out, when the cattle are to be removed from 
one field to another, so that they may have no obstruction in 
passing from one field to another. 

Spring pigs, that have been well kept, will suit to follow cat- 



268 

tic the next winter. Those following full fed cattle will gain 
one pound per day, upon an average, during the feeding season 
— about one hundred and twenty days. Those following half 
fed cattle will gain not quite as much. 

Hogs that are intended to follow cattle, are raised from good 
breeding sows, and should be sold as stock hogs, after following 
cattle one winter. When cattle are turned upon grass, the 
hogs should be put upon clover, and well salted. From the 
first of June, if not sold, they should have two ears of corn 
per day, till rye is lit to be turned on, and then upon oats. After 
these fail they should again be fed with corn, sufficient to keep 
them improving till the time for commencing fattening them. 

They should now be full fed for seven or eight weeks, when 
they will be fit for market. 

Mr. H. is of opinion, that a grazier can, with decided advan- 
tage, raise a considerable number of his stock cattle. His plan 
is as follows. lie supplies himself with a good stock of cows, 
of the short-horned Durham stock. As these would be too 
costly to purchase of the full blood, a stock may soon be pro- 
cured bv breeding from a full blooded bull, of good quality, up- 
on the best cows of the old stock,, many of which are to be had 
considerably improved, by crossing with the old Patton stock, 
Mr. Sanders' importation of 1817, the Teeswater, and Here- 
fords. Calves, from these cows, should have as much milk as 
they will suck till they are six weeks old. In the meantime 
the mules should be altered, and the females spayed, at the 
age of three or four v, 7 eeks. After the calves are six weeks 
old they should be allowed half the milk, be put on good pas- 
ture, and led with a little corn meal. 

At six months old, they should be weaned, put in a good 
fresh pasture, and fed with cut up corn, a shock to 25 or 30 
calves. Once a week hogs may be turned in to pick up the 
offal. As the calves increase in size and age the quantity of 
corn should be increased; and they should be fully half fed, 
during the second winter. 

Calves, of the improved breed, if well kept, may be made 
to weigh 500 lbs. at the age of twelve or fourteen months. 
The second year, they will gain 400 lbs; and the third 350 lbs. 
Thus the gain, each year, will be less than during the one pre- 
ceding; and hence it is an important consideration with gra- 



269 

ziers to bring their stock into market as early as possible. 
This should be done, of the improved breed, the winter after 
they are three years old; but the common stock and half 
bloods must be kept six or twelve months longer. 

Mr. H. is of opinion, that if cattle have been full fed, and 
are in fat condition in the spring, they will not gain, on the 
best of pasture, during the summer, enough to pay for their 
keep, outlay of capital, risk of death, &c, and consequently 
it would be most profitable to sell, at that season, unless the 
prospect of obtaining a better price, the ensuing winter, 
should hold out an inducement to keep them over the summer. 

But cattle, which have been only half fed, should be pastur- 
ed during the summer, as they will gain more than the cost of 
feeding, outlay of capital, and risk of death. 

These, in general, should be full fed the following winter; 
but sometimes a favorable state of the market may render it 
prudent to sell in November or December. 

One advantage, arising from the grazier raising his own 
stock cattle, in part, is that he can prepare them for market, 
at an earlier age; and can bring them to a greater weight, at 
the same age, than he can bring such stock cattle as are usual- 
ly to be had by purchasing. The former can always be pre- 
pared for market at three and a half years old ; whilst the lat- 
ter, in general, cannot be properly prepared before they are 
from four and a half to five years old. Another advantage is 
that less active capital will be required than when you depend 
altogether upon purchasing stock cattle. 

Mr. H. is of opinion, that a lot of ordinary good cattle, 
weighing, when purchased 500 lbs each, may be made to 
gain 500 lbs. by grazing and feeding them well, one year* 
But if of the improved breed, the gain will be more con- 
siderable, depending, however, somewhat upon the condition 
in which they were, when purchased. The gain may be four 
or five hundred pounds, on each; and, in extraordinary individ- 
uals, as much as six hundred pounds. 

Cows, whose calves are weaned, should be grazed on winter 
pasture, and fed on corn fodder, but no corn. Those which 
give milk, during the winter, should be well fed, but care should 
be taken not to keep cows, designed for breeding, in too fat 
condition, as this would defeat the object intended. They may 



270 

be kept, for this purpose, till they are ten or twelve years old, 
when they should be fattened and sold, or killed for beef. 

Cattle should be regularly salted, at the rate of half a pound 
each per week, for those which are grown, and proportionably 
for those of smaller size. This is usually given, twice a week, 
by throwing it in handsfull, on the grass, at the distance of a 
tew yards from each other. Cattle, when running on good 
pasture, fill themselves in the fore part of the day, and then 
lie down to rest, and ruminate their food j and again rise up to 
feed towards evening. They should never be disturbed, while 
thus lying down, to salt them, or for any other purpose. They 
should always be salted when engaged in feeding. Liebig, in 
his animal chemistry, has shown, very clearly, how important 
it is to keep all animals, intended to be fatted, in as complete a 
state of rest as possible. Hence the importance of furnishing 
cattle with an abundance of luxuriant pasture, so that they 
may quickly fill themselves, without the necessity of moving 
about much in search of their food, and of never disturbing them, 
when lying down. 

During a visit to several of the most distinguished and cele- 
brated graziers cf Bourbon and Clark counties, in the fall of 
the year 1842, 1 ascertained that the general practice of gra- 
zing and feeding cattle was similar to that described above. 
The variations were so slight and immaterial as not to require 
to be specially noticed. Most of these graziers preferred buy- 
ing their stock cattle, at from two to four years old, and sell- 
ing them off as quick as they could be prepared for market. 
Two years old cattle are kept from two to two and a half 
years. Those of three and four years old, are kept from one 
to one and a half years. 

One grazier, having in his farm 1 160 acres, all improved, was 
grazing 250 head of cattle, all of which would be ready for 
market in the spring of 1843. Two other gentlemen, with 
farms somewhat larger, were each grazing about the same 
number for full feeding the ensuing winter, besides a large 
number of younger cattle, intended to be only half fed. 

I visited several other farms, of nearly equal extent, on 
which a due proportion of cattle were grazing, in the most lux- 
uriant blue grass pastures. In one pasture I saw a small lot 
of cattle, of the improved breed, aged from four to five years. 



271 

which it was estimated by a very competent judge, would av- 
erage sixteen hundred pounds each, nett beef. 

There was growing, on several of these farms, from two 
hundred to two hundred and fifty acres of corn. The crops 
were exceedingly fine, and were estimated to produce from 80 
to 100 bushels per ecre. Whilst the same land, in 1838 and 
1839 — very unfavorable years for corn — yielded, upon an av- 
erage, not exceeding forty or fifty bushels per acre. 

Cutting up, and shocking corn, in the stalk, con- 
stitutes so important apart of the grazing system, that an ex- 
planation of the process is indispensably necessary to those, 
who have no practical knowledge on the subject. 

In a very rich soil the corn should be planted in squares 
from three and a half to four feet, each way, leaving three to 
four stalks in a hill. Most graziers prefer the latter number, 
where the soil is in a high state of improvement, from having 
been long grassed and fed upon. If not in a high state of im- 
provement, the larger distance should be allowed, and only three 
stalks in a hill- The cultivation should be so careful, as to 
suffer no weeds to grow up to seed among the corn. 

When corn is cut up, it is put in shocks, containing from 11 
to 1G hills square. The latter is the most usual number, and 
the following explanation of the process can easily be applied 
to any smaller number. The corn should not be cut till the 
husks are generally dry, and all the blades, except a few of 
those, on that part of the stalk above the ear. This is impor- 
tant to be attended to, for if the corn is in a green state, when 
cut up, the fodder will mould, and the grain become musty, 
and both will be greatly injured. When the period is near at 
hand for cutting up corn, some careful hands should be employ 
ed to tye the tops of the corn together, around which the- 
shocks are to be made. This process must be commenced on 
one side of the field, in the eighth and ninth rows, and begin- 
ning at the eighth and ninth hills from the end, tying the tops 
of four hills together, with the blades; then passing over the 
next fourteen hills, in each row, and tying again, as in the first 
instance, and so on till the row is completed. The second 
row must be tied opposite the first, leaving fourteen untied rows 
between. Thus the whole field is to be tied in regular squares, 
and in such manner as to leave sixteen hills, each way. to con- 



272 

stitute one shock. This process should be completed before the 
corn is ready for cutting up, so that all hands may be engaged 
in cutting and shocking as soon as the corn shall have attained 
the proper maturity. The weaker and less skilful hands 
should be employed in cutting the corn, throwing four hills to- 
gether, with the butts as even as possible, and the other hands 
should follow, gathering the corn, and setting it up carefully 
around the hills, previously tied together, as above explained. 
In setting up the corn, the hands should be careful to set the 
firsi four arms full in the angles of the four hills, tied together, 
setting the butts a little out from the centre, and pressing the 
tops together. The residue of the corn, which is to constitute 
the shock, should be set equally around the four hills, giving it 
a little inclination inwards, towards the centre, and pressing 
the tops together, but great care should be taken to prevent any 
of the corn from leaning to the right or left. If this is not 
carefully attended to the shock will be apt to twist round, and 
open at the top, which will let in the rain and snow. But if 
carefully set up so as to have no inclination to the right hand or 
left, but leaning a little towards the centre, the shock will re- 
quire no tying, and will preserve both corn and fodder from 
injuring. When the corn has attained the proper maturity, 
the process of cutting and shocking should be completed as 
soon as possible, as the fodder is liable to be much injured by 
s rains and dews, by standing in the field, after it is sufficiently 
dried. Hence the advantage of tying the hills, a little before 
the corn is ready to cut up, so that all hands may be engaged 
in cutting and shocking. I have found the common round hemp 
hook the most convenient instrument for cutting up corn, 
though doubtless there are others that may answer nearly as 
well. 



ON MAKING AND PRESERVING TIMOTHY MEADOWS. 

Although timothy hay is not so good for feeding cattle and 
sheep as that made of some other grasses, yet for horse feed, 
in connection with grain, it is of very great value. By refer- 
ence to my letter to Mr. Stephenson, upon the relative value 
of the most important grasses, it will be seen that timothy, 
(phleum pratensis) whether we regard the quantity of hay pro- 
duced from a given quantity of grass; or the quantity of nutri- 
tive matter; or the product of hay, per acre, will compare fa- 
vorably with any of the grasses, named in the tables accompa- 
nying that letter. By examining those tables it will be seen, 
that although lucern (medicago satlva) produces more hay, per 
acre, yet that the nutritive matter is less than half that of tim- 
othy hay, per acre. And that, taking into consideration the 
quantity of hay and nutritive matter, per acre, it far exceeds 
all the grasses in the tables, except one species of clover. This 
is the long rooted clover, (tri folium machrorhizum) native of 
Hungary. The product of this species of clover, both in hay 
and nutritive matters, (if no mistake has occurred, in the ex- 
periments made by Mr. Sinclair, under the directions of the 
Duke of Bedford) is astonishingly great. I am not aware that 
this species of clover has been introduced into the United 
States. The high character given it by Sir Humphrey Davy, 
as relates to the quantity of hay which it produces, and nutri- 
tritive matter contained in it, renders farther inquiry into its 
valuable properties of much importance. In product of hay, 
per acre, timothy falls but little short of this species of clover. 

and onlv about fifteen per cent., in nutriment. 

Y 



274 

Timothy has one advantage over all other grasses, with 
which I am acquainted, that is the little labor required to con- 
vert it into hay. If cut, when fully ripe, as it should be, it 
will cure in the swarth, and by using the horse rake, it will be 
prepared for cocking with but little manual labor. If the 
cocks are well made, they will turn rain so completely as to 
secure the hay from injury, thus affording ample time for stack- 
ing, or hauling it to the hay mough. It can be saved in stacks 
more perfectly than any other hay. To these advantages, it 
may be added, that it can be mowed with such facility, that a 
skilful laborer can easily cut two acres per day, when the 
meadow has a smooth bottom, and is clear of stumps. And it is 
of no little advantage, in making timothy hay, that the opera- 
tion take place at the most convenient and leisure season for 
the farmer, just after he has secured his harvest, and before 
the busy season for hemp and tobacco has commenced. 

These are great and decisive advantages, and strongly re- 
commend timothy meadows to such an extent as will furnish 
hay, of this description, for all stock for which it is suitable. 

For sheep and cattle, hay, composed of a mixture of Salem 
grass and red clover, would probably be found to be better adap- 
ted. Bat it is not the object of this essay to treat of these val- 
uable grasses. 

Timothy meadows are infested with a species of weed, 
commonly called the white blossom, which greatly injures 
them; and sometimes these become so numerous as almost to 
take the place of the timothy, leaving so little as scarcely to 
indemnify the cost of cutting and saving the hay. 

The main object to be aimed at, in making timothy mead- 
ows, is to prevent this weed from getting foothold in them; and 
I will endeavor to point out the best means of doing so. 

The white blossom is a biennial plant, and, I believe, never 
goes to seed the same year that it springs up. It usually comes 
up in the spring, when there is much moisture in the soil, but 
it may also vegetate in the fall, if the season is favorable. Du- 
ring the first year, it shows no indication of running up to 
stalk. In this stage of its growth it stands the winter as well 
as wheat or rye, and commences growing early in the spring, 
runs up to stalk, and begins to ripen its seed about the first of 
July, in latitude 39°. The ripening of the seed, on the sam* 



275 

stalk, is very irregular. Those on the centre branch of the 
stalk will ripen about the first of July, while, on the lateral 
branches, manv of the flowers will be quite fresh late in that 
month. And hence, when there is much white blossom among 
timothy, if it be cut any time in July, the soil will be replen- 
ished with the seed of this troublesome weed, which willgener- 
erally lie on the surface till the succeeding spring, when it will 
vegetate, and lay the foundation for a crop the following year. 

If ground is prepared for meadow, by such careful cultiva- 
tion, during the summer, as to destroy every plant of white 
blossom, which shall have put up in the spring, and shall be 
sowed in timothy, in the fall, this will afford no security 
against the white blossom, because there may still be seed in 
the ground, which will thereafter vegetate, and come up among 
the timothy, either in the fall or spring. That portion of the 
seed, which may come up in the fall, will run up to stalk and 
ripen the following year; and such as may not vegetate till 
spring, will lay the foundation for a crop the succeeding year. 

If the ground should be prepared for spring sowing by 
ploughing so carefully, the preceding fall, as to destroy every 
plant of white blossom; and the operation should be repeated 
in the spring, so as to destroy every plant, which shall have 
come up, after the last ploughing of the previous year, you 
may expect your timothy meadow to be clear of white blossom 
during the following summer, that is such of it as shall have 
run up to seed. Bat if there was any seed left in the ground, 
which did not vegetate the previous year, more or less of it, 
would be sure to vegetate the following spring, after the last 
ploughing, and produce a seed crop the next year. 

To secure timothy meadows, against this troublesome weed, 
it is necessarv that the ground should undergo, during several 
years, such a careful cultivation as to prevent any white blos- 
som from going to seed. This process must be continued until 
all the seed in the ground shall have vegetated. In the mean- 
time no white blossom should be suffered to go to seed, in the 
fence rows, or grounds adjacent to the intended meadow, be- 
cause, without this precaution, the seed of the white blossom, 
being very light, would be blown to the ground, which you are 
endeavoring to free from this noxious weed, and thus your ef- 
forts would be unavailing. 



276 

The length of time, during which ground should be cultiva- 
ted, to free it completely from white blossom,, depends in part 
upon the quantity of seed, in the ground; and in part upon the 
nature of the seasons, and mode of cultivation. If the sea- 
son be dry, a smaller proportion of seed will vegetate. If it 
be a wet one, and the ground frequently stirred, a much lar- 
ger proportion will vegetate. But still much of the seed may 
not have been thrown so near the surface, as to have been suf- 
ficiently exposed to the influence of the sun and air to cause 
it to vegetate. Besides nature seems to have provided, in or- 
der to perpetuate the different species of plants, that only a 
certain proportion of the seed in the ground, can vegetate at 
the same time, and hence there must be a succession of crops 
before all the seed in the ground will have vegetated. Hence, 
even with the most careful cultivation, and favorable seasons, 
where there is a large store of seed in the ground, several 
years may be required to cause its complete extermination. 
And if a farmer desires to have his timothy meadows entirely 
free from this great pest, he must persevere until he is assured 
he has exhausted all the seed in the ground. 

When this object shall have been accomplished, the ground, 
for meadow, should be prepared and sowed late in August or 
during the month of September. It should be well pulverized 
by ploughing and harrowing, and laid as level as possible; and 
when sowed, the seed should be covered lightly with a heavy 
brush, which will leave the ground much smoother than a har^ 
row. If the ground cannot be got ready to sow by the first of 
October, in latitude 39°, I would advise to have it completely 
prepared, before the fall rains render it too wet, and sow the 
seed from the first to the middle of February, without harrow- 
ing or brushing. The freezing and thawing of the ground 
will sufficiently cover the seed, and it will come up as soon as 
the weather is warm enough to cause it to vegetate. The only 
disadvantage of postponing sowing till spring is, that no crop 
will be obtained the first year. If ground, intended for mead* 
ow, is sufficiently strong for hemp, it forms a very good prepa- 
ration for timothy meadow, as it leaves the surface level, and in 
good condition for the reception of the seed, which, may be 
sowed upon the stubble, and harrowed in, and then brushed in 
the contrary direction, which will leave the ground very level. 



277 

Bjt hemp ground is apt to have more or less white blossom 
seed in it. In that case it would not be judicious to sow timo- 
thy on hemp stubble, without previous cultivation, long enough 
to exterminate the seed which may have been deposited. 

In making timothy meadows, it is all important to have per- 
fectly pure seed. I would, therefore, advise, that every far- 
mer, who intends making a timothy meadow, should commence 
by saving his own seed, as that which is to be had by purchase 
is hardly ever pure. It would be utterly unavailing to have 
the white blossom completely exterminated from the ground, 
intended for meadow, if he were to sow timothy seed ; not per- 
fectly pure ; and if he were to bury his seed, the chances would 
be ten to one that he would have mixed with it a portion of the 
white blossom. 

To guard against this, let every farmer save his own seed. 
To this end he should mark off, in a timothy meadow, as much 
ground as will furnish what seed he may want to sow, which is 
as free as possible from white blossom. This should be done 
when this weed is in full bloom, and he should then go over 
the space selected, and carefully cut off, with a knife or sick- 
le, every stalk low enough to remove every blossom, In mow- 
ing the meadow, the part, thus selected, should be left to get 
fully ripe, when it should be reaped, carefully avoiding to cut 
either dock or white blossom, if perchance any should have 
been left, and bound in small sheaves. These should be set 
up in long shocks, and, when in a proper state for threshing, 
hauled to the barn or a dirt floor, threshed and e'eane 1. It is ve- 
ry important that timothy should be thickly set, over every 
part of the ground, and that no vacant places should be left. 
It is better, therefore, to sow too much seed rather than too 
little. Six quarts of good, well cleaned seed to the acre is 
abundantly sufficient, if regularly distributed; and I would 
not advise sowing. less, as thick sowing makes the best mead- 
ow, and has a tendency to keep out weeds. 

After all the care that can be taken to exterminate the seed 
of white blossom, it may happen that some few may be found 
growing up to blossom, among the timothy, the first or second 
year. If such should be the case, they should be carefully 
pulled up before any of the seed ripens; or, if so numerous as 

to render the process of pulling them up too tedious, I would 

Y* 



278 

advise to cut the first crop of timothy before any part of the 
seed of the white blossom shall have ripened, say about the 
latter part of June. The hay will not be so good as if the 
timothy were ripe, but it will be the means of making all the 
subsequent crops better, by extirpating a great pest. If some 
few of the white blossom should appear the next season, they 
should be carefully pulled up before they ripen. It is not prob- 
able that any seed will now remain in the ground, near enough 
to the surface to be able to vegetate, and consequently the 
meadow will be free from white blossom, provided there is none 
in the adjacent fields, near enough to blow into the meadow. 

Timothy meadows are also liable to be infested with dock. 
This, though far less injurious than the white blossom, ought 
to be extirpated. Dock may be destroyed by cutting off the 
top of the root, with broad hoes, towards the latter end of A- 
pril, when the timothy is about ancle high. If the top of the 
root is cut off, at this period, to such a depth as to remove the 
entire spring growth, the timothy will have grown so much, 
before new shoots will put out from the root, as to very much 
check and smother them. And if any should still run up to 
seed, it will not have time to ripen before the timothy is fit to 
cut. By repeating this operation, should any dock still appear 
the next year, it will soon be extirpated. 

Elders are also, at times, troublesome to timothy meadows. 
These irny be destroyed by repeatedly cutting them, or, if 
large, they must be grubbed. They should be cut off, just be- 
low the ground, with sharp broad hoes, at the time directed for 
cutting dock. Such as may put up afterwards will be so young 
and tender, at mowing time, that they can be easily cut off 
with scythes, and, on no account, should any be left standing, 
at that period. Such as may put up, afterwards, may be cut 
with hoes late in the fall, or the ensuing spring, as above di- 
rected. This mode of treatment will soon extirpate them. 

To keep timothy meadows clear of other weeds, no other 
care will be necessary, but to cut them clean at each annual 
mowing time. The practice of leaving these standing in 
fence corners, aroun 1 stumps &c, when mowing, is very 
prejudicial to meadows, and should be carefully avoided. 

Having thus carefully guarded against injuries, to which 
timothy meadows are liable from several injurious pests, it 



279 

should next be the care of provident farmers to preserve them, 
in such a state of fertility, as to make them produce abundant 
crops. By reference to the article on grasses, referred to 
above, it will be seen, that the product of hay, per acre, from 
timothy, when properly cultivated, is very great. But to pro- 
duce very large crops, the ground must be adapted to the 
growth of this species of grass; must be well set; and free from 
dock, elders and weeds. But it must be borne in mind, that 
timothy requires more of the inorganic manures than most of 
the other grasses, such as silica, potash, soda, &c. Now if the 
hay is every year removed from the meadow, it is evident these 
ingredients will in time, be so much diminished as no longer to 
leave in the soil a sufficient quantity to supply abundantly the 
growing crop of timothy, and hence there will be a gradual 
diminution of crop, unless proper means are resorted to, to 
restore what shall have been removed in the form of hay. To 
guard against the loss of these essential ingredients, as much 
as possible, a second crop of timothy should never be cut, but 
should be pastured by sheep, calves, &c. which will convert 
the grass into manure. 

if the hay, or a part of it, should be fed upon the ground, 
on which it grew, it would be advantageous in preserving to 
the soil those ingredients, which are so essential to the produc- 
tion of luxuriant crops. This may not always be convenient, 
and hence the importance of supplying to timothy meadows a 
quantity of silica, potash, soda, &c, equivalent to the quantity 
removed, by taking off the crops of hay. These ingredients 
exist abundantly in ashes, and hence these (leached or un leach- 
ed) are very important. On every farm many of these, in an 
unleached state (which are far the most valuable) might be col- 
lected from places where logs and brush have been burnt, and 
applied very profitably to timothy meadows. In clearing up 
woodland for pastures, the logs, brush, &c. might be piled and 
burnt at a season when it would be convenient to apply the 
ashes as manure to timothy and other meadows, and if hauled 
and spread before they shall have become leached by rains, 
they would be of very great value, for being leached on the 
meadows the soil would receive the full benefit of the potash 
and other ingredients, capable of being dissolved by water, 
as well as those of a fixed nature, whilst the former would be 



280 - 

lost, if the ashes were permitted to remain exposed, for any 
length of time, where the logs and brush were burnt. 

Stable manures also contain silica, potash, &.c, though not 
in such abundance as ashes, and hence are very useful to mead- 
ows on this account as well as for other valuable manuring in- 
gredients . The application of these to meadows are very ben- 
eficial, though they may, in general, be more profitably ap- 
plied to other parts of the farm. 

Harrowing timothy meadows, as early in the spring as the 
ground shall be dry enough for the purpose, with a heavy har- 
row, and well sharpened teeth, is of considerable advantage, 
especially after they shall have been of several years standing. 
This operation should be performed both ways, and with such 
a weight on the harrow as to cause the teeth to cut the turf to 
the depth of an inch or two. 

No stock should be suffered to run on timothy meadows, after 
the month of December, except when the ground is frozen. 
Thus treated the soil will be lightened by the winter freezing, 
and will be in proper condition for the application of the har- 
row. The grass will spring up early and cover the ground so 
as to protect it, in a great degree, from the effects of an early 
drouth, and thus secure to the provident farmer a fair crop, 
even in the most unfavorable season, and a large one in those 
which are of a medium character. 



ON THE CULTIVATION OF WHEAT. 

It is not my intention to write a regular essay on the culti- 
vation of this valuable grain, but to make some suggestions a? 
to the probable cause of this crop being so uncertain, in the 
rich soils of Kentucky, and upon the appropriate remedy for 
so serious an evil. 

These soils are remarkable for their great depth of rich 
vegetable mould. Lie big says, that soils particularly rich in 
humus are not favourable to the growth of wheat. He instan- 
ces many parts of Brazil, "where the soils are particularly 
rich in this substance." The stalk, he says, "attains no 
strength, and droops prematurely." "The cause is this — that 
the strength of the stalk is due to silicate of potash, and 
that the corn (wheat) requires phosphate of magnesia, neither 
of which substances a soil of humus can afford, since it does 
not contain them." (organic chemistry 198.) According to this 
highly distinguished writer on agriculture, silicate of potash 
is essential to the formation of the straw of wheat, and phos- 
phate of magnesia to the formation of the grain. Now if there 
be a deficiency of these ingredients, in our rich soils, in which 
humus so much abounds, we, at once, perceive the reason why 
they are not well adapted to wheat. But cannot this defect 
be remedied, by supplying our soils with a due proportion of 
silicate of potash, and phosphate of magnesia ? The former 
abounds in the ashes of all vegetable substances. The applica- 
tion of ashes, both leached and unleached, to soils, upon which 
wheat is intended to be grown, would be of great service in 
supplying an ingredient, which is so essential in the formation 



282 

of straw. As grasses and straws of all kinds contain silicate of 
potash, the manure from stock, fed upon them, will contain 
this substance ; and the application of such manure to lands, 
intended for wheat, will, consequently, be beneficial. In cut- 
ting wheat as much of the straw should be left on the ground 
as can be, consistently with a due economy in saving the grain. 
Sickles should, therefore, be used in preference to cradles, as 
the former leaves a much heavier coat of stubble on the 
ground. 

After the wheat is threshed, all the straw, or the manure 
formed from it, should be given back to the soil. When it is 
considered that silicate of potash is of such a fixed nature that 
it cannot escape, in the form of gas, it will be perceived that a 
little attention will enable the prudent husbandman to keep 
"his land supplied with a clue proportion of this ingredient. 

For the formation of grain, phosphate of magnesia is requi- 
red. This is found in the bones of all animals, which contain 
also other substances of great value as manures. Bones of 
every description ought, therefore, to be carefully collected, 
pounded fine, and applied to lands, on which wheat is intended 
to be sown. Manures, formed by the consumption of grain 
by man and beast, contain phosphate of magnesia, and ought 
to be carefully saved and applied to soils intended for wheat. 
Human urine and phosphoric acid, are also of great value, for 
this purpose, as was shown in the essay on the system of ag- 
riculture adapted to Kentucky, (p. 137 — 142.) 

A liberal cultivation of clover is highly useful, in this res- 
pect, as this crop requires only a very minute proportion of the 
silicate of potash to sustain its growth; and by feeding it off,, 
on the ground, or suffering it to fall down and rot, it not only 
restores all that it had extracted from the soil, but also what 
it had derived from the atmosphere, thus increasing instead of 
diminishing the quantity of alkali in the soil, (see p. 142.) 

The supplying of a soil with a due proportion of the silicate 
of potash and phosphate of magnesia, is attended with anoth- 
er beneficial effect. Liebig tells us, that in furnishing a soil 
with mineral elements, "we give them the power to appropri- 
ate carbon from a source which is inexhaustible; while in the 
absence of these elements the most abundant supply of car- 
bonic acid, or of decaying vegetable matter, would not in- 



283 

crease the produce of a field." The inexhaustible source, 
here alluded to, is the atmosphere, one of the component parts 
of which is carbonic acid. He remarks, that by supplying a 
soil with a due proportion of lime and ashes, the amount of 
carbonic acid absorbed by a plant, from the atmosphere, in a 
given time, is limited (only) by the quantity which is brought 
into contact with its organs of absorption. (Familiar letters 
on chemistry, p. 46.) 

As carbon is a valuable ingredient in all manures, it is ob- 
vious that great benefits must result from furnishing soils with 
mineral elements, which will enable the plants, growing in 
them, to obtain an inexhaustible supply of so valuable an in- 
gredient. 

The wheat crop in Pennsylvania is found to derive great 
benefit from the application of lime to soils, upon which it is 
intended to be sown. One of these benefits is shown above. 
Another, probably, arises from the fact that lime is one of the 
alkaline earths; and it has been seen, that where there is a 
deficiency of one alkali, another may be substituted in its 
stead, (see p. 229, 230.) 

Although Liebig, in the quotation above, speaks only of 
phosphate of magnesia, as being essential to the formation of 
the grain of wheat, yet in his familiar letters on chemistry, 
(p. 51) he attributes equal importance to the phosphate of lime. 
He remarks, that "a field, in which phosphate of lime, or the 
alkaline phosphates, form no part of the soil, is totally incapable 
of producing grain, peas or beans.'" 

The foregoing suggestions will, perhaps, be sufficient to at- 
tract attention to the importance of applying the appropriate 
remedy for the better adaptation of our rich vegetable soil to 
the wheat culture, and what that remedy should be.* 



*See letter to Mr. Ruffin on the importance of alkalies in soil?, 
p. 225. 



THE MODE OF FEEDING ROOT CROPS TO SHEEP, &e. &e. 

Believing that the following letter, addressed to me, by Mr. 
Lewis Sanders, of Grass Hills, Kentucky, would be eminent- 
ly useful to the Agricultural interest, I solicited, and obtained 
leave from him to introducee it into the volume of essays, now 
presented to the public. Mr. Sanders is doubtless correct, in 
the opinion expressed in relation to the unsuitableness of timo- 
thy hay as food for cattle and sheep. But I am decidedly of 
opinion, that it is of great value, as food for horses and mules, 
when cut for hay, in its ripe state. Its great amount of nutri- 
tive matter, in its seed state, as shown in the essay on grasses, 
together with its large product in hay, and the ease with which 
it can be saved, are certainly strong recommendations. 

Red top is an unproductive grass, in dry soils, but is well 
adapted to marshey and wet lands. In such situations it pro- 
duces heavy crops. I have not sufficient information, to be 
able to speak of its suitableness for feeding cattle, sheep, &c. 

My views, in relation to the kinds of sheep, most suitable 
to our circumstances, are given in the general essay on the ag- 
riculture of Kentucky, (see p. 38.) Although the manufac- 
turers of coarse fabrics, in Kentucky, such as Janes, &c, 
make little or no difference between fine and coarse wool, yet 
there is, within the reach of the grower of fine wool, a much 
better market for that commodity. No article will bear the 
cost of transportation better than fine wool; and it can be sent, 
with but little expense to the east, where it will command 
from thirty-five to forty-five cents per pound. There is more- 
over, reason to believe, that the demand for fine wool will be 



285 

rapidly extended, under the wholesome influence of the tariff 
of 1842, which has already caused a number of new manu- 
factories of fine wool to spring up; and these will gradually ex- 
tend themselves into the West. Such already has been the 
influence upon the demand for fine wool, that a number of pur- 
chasers from the East are seeking for the article at the doors 
of the sheep growers of the West. I have sold my crop of 
merino wool, of the present year's clip, at home, for a 
price within a fraction of fifty per cent, more than it net- 
ted me, last year, at Philadelphia. There will be scope 
enough, therefore, for the growers of fine as well as coarse 
wool. The latter will doubtless do best in the neighborhood 
of large cities, where there will be a ready market for mutton. 
On the other hand, fine wooled sheep will be more suitable 
for the mountain regions, where mutton will be of minor con- 
sideration. It must always be borne in mind too, that animals 
consume food in proportion to their size. The same pasture 
that will sustain a dozen Bakewells, will probably keep nearly 
twice that number of merinoes in good plight. The latter 
will, therefore, afford something like two fleeces to counterbal- 
ance one of the Bakewells. 

Grass Hills, Ky., Nov. 9, 1843. 
To Judge Beatty : 

Sir: Your letter of the 2d inst., asking me for my view- 
relative to the cultivation of orchard grass, red clover, turnips, 
and cabbage, was duly received. I will do the best I can in 
response, as it gives me great pleasure to do any thing lean in 
that way to oblige you, to whom the whole agricultural commu- 
nity are under so many obligations for your labors to improve 
their condition. 

As to Grasses. — I think it is safest to sow orchard grass 
seed early in the spring, as soon as the ground can be prepared, 
after it is freed from the frost. If sowed in the fall, it comes 
up well, but three years in four is killed by frost the first winter. 
The better the preparation, the surer of success. The seed 
is quite light, and care should be taken to give a uniform cast 
over the ground; this is a windy season of the year, but early 
in the morning and in the afternoon the wind is often stilled. 
One bushel of clean sound seed uniformly cast over the ground 
is sufficient for an acre, butlf the preparation of the ground 

Z 



286 

is slovenly, or if the quality of the seed is not known to be 
good, it is best to increase the quantity. Three pints of red clo- 
ver seed, sown at the same time, (the laying off to sow the or- 
chard grass, will answer to sow the clover,) on the same ground, 
will be of great advantage, either for hay or for grazing; the 
seed not to be mixed, but sown separately. 

I have succeeded very well in sowing these seeds on wheat 
ground in February, but have sometimes failed. The same 
may be said if sown on oat ground. 

I recommend to farmers, that are disposed to cultivate the or- 
chard grass, to prepare a few acres with care, early in the 
spring, ploughed and harrowed to a fine tilth. Sow as above 
directed with orchard grass and red clover only; it should be 
well put in with harrowing and cross harrowing, or with a brush. 
Towards the end of the month of June following, pass over 
the ground regularly with a grass scythe, mowing uniformly 
as if for hay. This ought not to be omitted; it cripples,1f it 
does not destroy, the weeds, giving the young grass the advan- 
tage of them. Thus treated, there will be most superior gra- 
zing for young stock the next fall. The second summer yields 
a good crop of seed, from ten to fifteen bushels per acre and of- 
ten more. Every farmer ought to raise his own seeds for his 
main sowings; not having to buy his own seed, he may sow 
how and when he pleases, and learn from experience. 

I have not known any person that has cultivated orchard 
grass, (except Mr. Berry, of Henry or Oldham county,) but 
thinks it the best of all the grasses he has tried. Judge Pe- 
ters, who, in his lifetime, was at the head of all agricultural 
improvements in Pennsylvania, gave it greatly the preference 
over all others. Col. John Hare Powel, the spirited promoter 
of agricultural improvements in Pennsylvania, since the days 
of Judge Peters, entertains the same favorable opinions of or- 
chard grass as his distinguished predecessor, and has published 
several valuable essays tending to prove its great utility. 

1st. Orchard grass pastures are ready to afford stock a full 
bite in the spring, ten to twelve days sooner than blue grass. 

2d. When grazed down in the summer, and the stock taken 
off, it will be in condition to receive stock again in less than 
half the time thai blue grass would require ; on good ground. 



287 

m warm weather, orchard grass being fresh cut, will grow 
more than an inch in twenty-four hours. 

3d. It stands a long pinching drought much better than any 
other grass. I attribute all its good properties, its early growth, 
its powers of reproduction, and its capacity to withstand a 
drought, to its abundant strong roots. 

As soon as the top seed are ripe, which is easily discovered, 
it should be expeditiously cut ; if left to stand, much and the 
best seed is lost by shattering out. Use a cradle or a sickle, 
passing over the heads of the clover, nothing is gathered but 
the seed and stem; tie up in bundles or sheaves, and put into 
shocks for a few days, to let the moisture dry up; then haul to 
a treacling or threshing floor. As soon as the seed is cut, intro- 
duce the scythe for hay, the sooner the better, as a second 
crop will follow and be better than the first, of the best sort of 
hay for any kind of stock that eats hay. But if it is not con- 
venient to cut for hay at that time, there is no great loss in let- 
ting it go uncut, as nothing perishes but the stump of the seed 
stem. The blades (unlike timothy) continue to grow on, ready 
for the scythe at anytime, but the yield will be considerably 
greater by taking off two crops for hay. 

I use two wire riddles for cleaning the seed, one coarse, the 
other finer, and a third one when the seed is put up for sale. 
The seed should be spread on a plank floor for a few days to 
cure. It may then be put into barrels, but not into a largs 
bulk for some time. 

Blue grass has very fine long roots, drawing nourishment 
from a distance. Its seed ripen in June, after which it is of 
very slow growth, but revive with the moist weather in the 
fall. 

White clover is pretty much of the same character, except 
that it has not the long fibrous roots of the other. They are 
both very rich succulent grasses, and of great value on every 
farm. I think both may now be classed as indigenous to Ken- 
tucky. Whatever may have been the fact when the country 
was first settled, as far as my observation has extended, by 
clearing or deadening the timber so as to let in the sun and the 
hoof on the soil, these two grasses make their appearance. 

Timothy is more extensively cultivated for hay than any 
other grass in the State. I do not cultivate it, believing that. 



288 

» 

the hay is of little or no utility. Tt was remarked by old 
Thomas Gough, that he would prefer giving his cattle dry 
leaves from the forest, in the latter part of the winter, to giv- 
ing them timothy hay. I heard Gen. James Shelby say that a 
feeder might take any number of bullocks, ten to a hundred, 
commence feeding at the usual time in the fall, and give them 
daily as much timothy hay as they could eat, until it was time 
to put them on grass in the spring, and then the cattle would 
not be worth as much as they were in the fall when the feed- 
ing on timothy hay commenced. I am of the same opinion. 
Old Mr. Gough and Gen. Shelby are good authority to the 
feeders of Bourbon, Clarke, and other counties. The crop of 
hay is consumed, the labor in feeding is lost,, risk of life of the 
bullocks, interest of money, and the depreciation in value, al- 
together are of some magnitude against timothy hay. I know- 
that sheep fare no better on timothy hay than cattle. 

Red-top or herds' grass vegetates late in the spring ; I look 
upon it as a poor and very inferior grass, and upon uplands to 
be but little better than nimble-will. It is said to be appropri- 
ate to wet lands, of which I have no experience. 

As to Turnips.— New ground well prepared, or old land 
made rich by manure, will bring turnips; without good ground 
and good preparation, a good yield may not be expected. New 
land, owing to the undecomposed vegetable matter mixed with 
the surface soil, prevents the formation of crust or baking, a 
much greater drawback on a turnip crop than the fly. Upon 
inferior lands, after turnip seed are sown and harrowed or 
btushed in, the first rain causes a crust, or baking, as it is gen- 
erally termed.- If the seed sprout, and the tender plant gets 
up through this crust and forms two to four leaves, it is held 
then as if tied around its little stem by a string, until the fly 
eats it up. In new, or old land made rich, this baking or crust 
does not so readily form; the young and tender plants, not be- 
ing so impeded, grow off at once, and as soon as they get six 
leaves the fly can do them no injury. I have rarely known a 
crop to fail if sowed in season on new land, well ploughed. I 
seldom fail in raising a good crop on old land. 

Procure carefully saved seed, of the common large fall tur- 
nip, such as I have seen growing since the first settlement of 
the country, and sow in the usual way in the month of July — 



289 

the middle of the month I prefer. Harrow with a light har- 
row, or brush them in. No after culture is necessary, unless 
weeds appear to injure the crop, and if so, chop them down 
with the hoe. 

Just before winter sets in, (white frosts do no injury, and 
they can bear a moderate freezing of the earth,) the crop 
should be gathered and secured for winter feeding. Haul the 
turnips with the tops, to the side of a fence, or to the middle 
of a field, pasture ground is best, to be enclosed by a fence, 
where it is most convenient to feed them out, by throwing 
them over the fence, on sod land; any other would become too 
muddy in warm wet weather. Cut off the tops, to be fed at 
the time or soon after, as they heat and spoil if let lay too long 
in bulk. Form heaps of the turnips, near the fence, for the 
convenience of throwing over, of forty bushels, larger or smal- 
ler will do just as well; if made on sod-land so much the better. 
Then cover the heaps of turnips with straw of any sort; a 
foot thick is sufficient. If straw is not to be had, cut-up corn- 
fodder will do; no earth is necessary to be put on the heaps. 
When the grass fails commence feeding turnips. Throw over 
the fence as many as the stock will eat up clean, morning and 
evening, no matter what kind of weather ; the straw or cover- 
ing may be parted and access had to the turnips. I know that 
turnips may be thus kept through the winter; such a winter as 
the last would freeze some of the outside ones, but in the mid- 
dle of the heap they would be sound. Eight hundred bushels 
per acre may be called a good crop. Willi superior cultivation, 
and a favorable season, a much larger quantity may be pro- 
duced. Turnips weigh 72 lbs. to the bushel ; giving 57,600 lbs. 
of good succulent food (besides the tops) for winter feeding per 
acre. 

Cabbage, unlike turnips in one respect, do not head well on 
new land, but do best in very rich old land. To insure a good 
crop of cabbage, the ground must be heavily manured and 
well ploughed, by all means trench ploughed, then levelled 
and smoothed by two or three harrowings. The planting of 
winter cabbage should be so regulated as to have the crop as 
near maturity as you can by the middle of November. If ripe 
earlier, many will rot, and not keep through the winter. Some 

sorts will mature in less time than others. The true time of 

Z* 



290 

sett'mg'ouf the plants can be ascertained only from experience 
difference in soils, in preparation and culture, in climate, and in 
the sorts cultivated, all have their bearing and effect as to the 
time of maturity. I would rather take them up a little before 
than after being ripe. Unripe ones will grow and head after 
being put away, and over-ripe ones will rot. I cultivate the 
common drumhead in the main, with a small portion of green 
curled savoy, setting out the plants about the first of June. 
The oround being well prepared, with a smooth surface, lay it 
off in rows, three feet apart, with a light one horse plough, the 
single coulter is the best; lay a garden line across the rows at 
right angles, and plant by the line, when one row is planted re- 
move the line three feet, and so on till finished. The planting 
should be carefully and accurately performed, so that the after 
culture may be easily done with a one-horse plough. The bet- 
ter the cultivation is, the larger and heavier will be the plants. 
This gives to each plant nine superficial feet, and four thousand 
eight hundred and forty plants to the acre. If the ground is as 
good as anv farmer may make it, with sufficient cultivation, 
(little if any more than a corn crop should receive.) the plants 
will average, stalk, leaves, and head, twelve and a half pounds, 
and may be made to average fifteen pounds or more. The 
first named average would yield sixty thousand five hundred 
pounds. Thirty tons of green succulent food, so highly im- 
portant for young stock in the winter and spring, before pas- 
tures are ready for them; more particularly for cows giving 
milk, ewes suckling lambs, and for sheep fattening for the 
butcher. 

Towards the end of November secure the crop, pull up by 
the roots, and haul to the place intended for feeding out, near 
to a fence row. or to the middle of the field, as suggested to 
feed turnips. Commence a long rick on the sod, within three 
feet of a fence, by laying two rows of cabbage down, head to 
head, with the outer leaves well gathered around the head, 
(make one or more ricks, to suit the size of the crop,) then lay 
another row on the first, with the heads out, the roots meeting 
in the middle. Two double rows being thus snugly and com- 
pactly laid, fill up with fine earth the spaces between the stalks, 
covering them evenly, so as to let the earth extend a little on 
the heads of the last course. Then lav another double row 



291 

with the heads in, as at first, on this double row lay another 
with the heads out, as was laid the second double row, then cov- 
er the middle with earth as before. Build on in this way five 
or six feet high. When up to the square, the top or finishing 
course should be laid with the heads in, and lapped one past the 
other, drawing the roots a little in from the outer edge ; then 
cover the heads with earth making a ridge the whole length, 
and the rick is finished. The earth used in filling and level- 
ling up, makes a trench on the sides and ends that serves to 
draw off any moisture. Protect the rick with a good covering 
of cut-up corn fodder, on the sides and ends, and a good covering 
of straw for the top which forms a roof. Feed the outside 
heads first, which may be done in any sort of weather by put- 
ting aside the fodder, cutting off the heads with a spade or oth- 
er suitable tool, and throwing them over to the stock. When 
all of the outer heads are fed away, then commence at one end 
of the rick ,• begin at the top and come down to the ground, fill- 
ing up the trenches evenly as you go along. In making the 
rick, many waste leaves will be in the way which should be 
thrown over the fence at the time, giving the stock a chance 
to eat them. If you find the cabbage and turnips keep well, 
reserve as many as you can for March and April, two of the 
most trying months on stock. 

Every farmer ought to save seed for his own use. I know 
from long experience the many evils resulting from depen- 
dence on chance for a supply ; it is a mere chance if your expecta- 
tions are realized in the produce of seeds purchased. At the 
time of putting away the turnip crop, select a dozen or more 
good ones for seed, set them out in a row 18 inches apart in 
ground fresh ploughed or dug for the purpose, the crown about 
an inch below the surface; cover the row with a good coating 
of straw, and when the frost is fairly out of the ground in the 
spring, remove the straw. To raise cabbage seed, do the same ; 
setting out in the fall is much better than to defer it till spring. 

As to Sheep. — I have had some experience in this stock, hav- 
ing handled them for forty years. In 1814, I owned a large 
flock of Merinoes, then selling the cullings of the flock for 
over a hundred dollars each at public auction ; true it was a time 
of war, and I was paying two dollars per pound cash, for all the 
Merino w-ool I could get, in its natural state too. In three 



292 

years thereafter (1817) I sold (or the sheriff did for me) the 
selected flock of Merinoes, upwards of three hundred head, 
for two dollars each. This riock, that brought a little over 
six hundred dollars, would have produced three years before 
upwards of thirty thousand. But peace having taken place in 
the mean time, and the repeal of the double duties (war duties) 
in 1816, knocked the Merinoes in the head, as it did the 
manufacturers. It is no longer, it seems to me, a question as 
to which is the best breed ; that, I think, is settled by the price 
now paid for wool. I have seen wool purchased in Louisville, 
by the Andersons and by James Cromey, at a very low price ; 
paying no more for the finest than for the coarsest grades. A 
stapler could select from these purchases pick-lock to all grades 
below, yet all purchased at the same price. When coarse wool 
is selling from Id. to 8d. in England, the finest grades are 
worth 2s. 9d. to 3s. fid. per pound ; and why this great differ- 
ence in price? Simply because nature does not allow fine 
wool to grow on a large carcass, and the small carcass pays 
too litle from the butcher to justify keeping them. Notwith- 
standing the high price paid for fine wool in England, her agri- 
culturists will not produce it, as the fleece even there will not. 
(alone pay for their keeping. Attempts were made there to 
grow fine wool; Merinoes were introduced, and Dr. Parry 
made the trial of crossing them on the famous Southdowns, but 
at length had to abandon them for larger carcasses. 

As we cannot now get more for fine than for coarse wool, that, 
I think, should settle the question for the present at least. 
The breed that produces the heaviest fleece and the largest 
carcass will bring to the farmer the mokt money, and therefore 
should be the breed preferred to all others. The name is not 
of consequence, Bakewells, Cotswolds, or Southdowns, no mat- 
ter which ; a heavy fleece and large carcass should be the aim, 
but symmetry of form is by no means to be overlooked. -Sheep 
are short-lived animals, arriving at maturity at four years; 
some breeds sooner ; no improvement afterwards. This is the 
age to sell. At shearing time put all the four year olds to 
themselves, both ewes and wethers, give to them the best pas- 
tures, and when winter sets in, feed, to fatten for the butcher, 
in the best way that the farm allows. They may be made 
marketable from January to May, and if well managed will 



293 

bring double the money they will do in the ordinary way. The 
four year olds being sold off, their place \s filled by the lambs, 
so that the flock on the farm is always increasing in value. If 
kept over four years old, they remain stationary for a year or 
two, then decline every year in fleece and flesh until they die. 
The last few years the fleece is too poor to pay for the keeping, 
so in the end there is a total loss in the keeping of old sheep. 

The fattening ewes ought to have the buck first of January. 
If it is the interest of the farm to increase the number of sheep, 
some of the best of the ewes may be kept till six years old , 
but not longer. 

I have lost more sheep by housing them in the winter, and 
more lambs by folding the ewes at yeaning time, than from all 
other causes. Sheep ought to be protected from the sun in 
summer, not however, by housing them. 

Sheep are free from any sort of disease in this State ; no 
rot, (a disease of the foot,) as prevails in England ; no scab, as 
in Spain; if an ill-looking flock is met with, it comes of neg- 
lect, but mostlv by poverty or old age. 

LEWIS SANDERS 



TESTIMONIALS. 

AGRICULTURE .— "Essays on Practical Agriculture, including his 
Prize Essays, carefully revised. By ADAM BEATTY, Vice Presi- 
dent of the Kentucky Agricultural Society. Maysville, Ky., Col- 
lins & Brown, 1844." 

The above is the title of a volume of 293 pages, lying before 
us. It contains essays on the agriculture of Kentucky; the 
system of agriculture best adapted to Kentucky; on the culti- 
vation of Corn ; of Hemp ; of Tobacco ; Rotation of Crop3 ; Ad- 
vantages of Manufactures to Agriculture ; Breeding of Horses 
for Agricultural purposes ; on the nature of soils and the means 
of rendering them fertile ; on food for plants and whence de- 
rived ; on the means of reclaiming and preserving the fertility 
of soils; on the deterioration of soil and the means of renova- 
tion; on the relation of the constitution of soils to their fertili- 
ty; on the importance of Alkalies in soils; on the relative value 
of the most important grasses; on setting woodland in grass; 
on the cultivation of the Locust ; on grassing and feeding Cat- 
tle in Kentucky; on making and preserving Timothy Mead- 
ows; on the cultivation of Wheat in rich vegetable soils; and 
the mode of feeding root crops to Sheep, &c. &c. These es- 
says embrace nearly every important subject on which a west- 
ern farmer desires information. 

Their author, Judge Beatty, is a gentleman of mature judg- 
ment, great common sense, and of deep research, who has 
devoted his attention almost exclusively, for years, to the culti- 
vation of the soil, and to the elevation of "farming" into a 
science. He is pre-eminently a practical and money-making 
farmer, and the volume before us imparts, (though we have 
only glanced hastily over it) valuable knowledge upon all the 
topics of which it treats. We invite the attention of our Agri- 
cultural community to the work, feeling confident, that it will 
prove a valuable guide, to all who will follow its suggestions. 

Western Citizen, Paris, Ky. 



Essays on Agriculture. By Adam Beatty, Vice President of the 
Kentucky Agricultural Society. Printed by Collins & Brown, 
Maysville, Kentucky. 

This is a work of some 300 pages on Agriculture, embracing 
the cultivation of Corn, Hemp, Tobacco, Grasses, the Breeding 
of Horses, 6lc. &c. 

Judge Beatty has a high reputation among th© farmers of 
Kentucky for the extent of his agricultural information, and 
his experience, judgment and discrimination, as a practical 
farmer. 



296 

The work contains, also, essays from several other distin- 
guished agriculturists of Kentucky, and cannot fail of being a 
valuable book to all who are interested in the cultivation of the 
soil. No subject can possibly be of more importance, more 
universally interesting, more beneficent, or more improving to 
man's moral nature, than the innocent and useful study of agri- 
culture. And yet how much is it neglected? — Cincinnati 
Daily Atlas. 



Essays on Practical Agriculture, including his Prize Essays, care- 
fully revised. By Adam Beatty, Vice President of the Kentucky 
Agricultural Society. Maysville, Ky., Collins & Brown. 1844. 

pp. m. 

We have so often had occasion to commend the Agricultural 
writings of Judge Beatty, that our readers must be familiar with 
his name at least, if not the productions of his pen. The 
readers of the Kentucky Farmer, to the columns of which he 
was an able, valued and constant contributor, will not need 
one word from us, or from any one, in commendation of his 
work. We have no hesitation whatever in expressing the de- 
cided opinion that this volume of Judge Beatty's, is far the 
most practical and intrinsically useful, and especially for the 
Western farmer, that has ever issued from the American 
press. Its great and eminent characteristic is practical use- 
fulness. Judge Beatty, in every essay but one, has written 
from the practical experience of more than thirty years; and 
on that one (grazing and feeding cattle) we know that he dili- 
gently consulted on the spot the experience of the ablest gra- 
ziers and feeders in Kentucky. We well remember the pleas- 
ure and instruction we derived while attending him in a part 
of his delightful round among the graziers. Judge Beatty is 
one of those rare characters, combining with scientific learn- 
ing practical knowledge derived from actual and long experi- 
ence. Though a man of science, he has subjected his science 
to practical tests, rejecting as spurious that which did not stand 
the severest tests. In saying that Judge Beatty is a practical 
farmer, we do not mean merely that he is the proprietor of a 
farm; but that he is such from both study and personal labor. 
There is scarce any operation in practical farming which he 
has not for many years personally directed and practically per- 
formed. And the proof that he is an able, practical farmer, is 
to be found, not merely in his book, but in the improved con- 
dition and productiveness of his farm. There is indubitable 
proof; and we have been informed, on what we consider un- 
questionable authority, that his fields, under his system of cul- 
ture, while they have annually yielded him satisfactory profits, 
have improved in fertility. It is from the practical example of 
such men, that others are to be benefitted. The book of Judge 



297 

Beatty presents that example in a style the most agreeable, 
because it is plain, clear, intelligible, practical, easily under- 
stood, so that any one may copy it. With this statement of our 
estimation of Judge Beatty and his book, for which the agri- 
cultural public will remain long indebted to him, we need hard- 
ly beseech any one to obtain a copy of it; for we feel assured 
that every one who hears of such a book, from such an author, 
will think it just as necessary to have it in order to improve- 
ment in his farming, as it would be to have a plough for the 
breaking up of his grounds. To give a further proof of the 
utility of the book, we copy the table of contents, which shows 
great practical judgment in the selection of topics. It will be 
seen that the essays embrace instructions on nearly every lead- 
ing operation of Western farming: 

Agriculture of Kentucky — showing what it was, and a com- 
parison with the agriculture of other countries, and espe- 
cially those most advanced in agricultural improvement. And 
also upon the best mode of renovating the soil of Kentucky, 
where it has been deteriorated by improvident cultivation. 
Cultivation of Corn. 
Cultivation of Hemp. 
Cultivation of Tobacco. 

System of Agriculture best adapted to Kentucky. 
Rotation of crops. 

Advantages of manufactures to Agriculture. 
Breeding horses for agricultural purposes, by W. Williams. 
Ditto, by A. Beatty. 

Letter to Thomas B. Stevenson, Esq., corresponding secreta- 
ry of the Kentucky Agricultural Society, on the nature of 
soils, and the means of rendering them fertile. 
Letter to same — on food for plants, and whence derived. 
Letter to same — on the means of reclaiming and preserving the 

fertility of soils. 
Letter to same — on the deterioration of soil, and means of ren- 
ovation. 
Letter to Edmund Ruffin, editor and proprietor of the Farmers' 
Register, Petersburg, Va., on the relation of the constitution 
of soils to their fertility. 
Letter to same — on the importance of alkalies in soils. 
Letter to Thomas B. Stevenson, Esq., on the relative value of 

the most important grasses. 
On setting woodland in grass. 
On the Cultivation of the Locust. 
On grazing and feeding cattle in Kentucky. 
On making and preserving Timothy Meadows. 
On the cultivation of wheat in rich vegetable soils. 
The mode of feeding root crops to Sheep, &c. &c. 

Frankfort Commonwealth, 



29tt 



AGRICULTURAL ESSAYS.— "Essays on Practical Agriculture, in- 
cluding his Prize Essays."— by A. BEATTY. 

This truly useful work is now in the hands of the binder and 
will soon be ready for delivery to subscribers. The high rep- 
utation of Judge Beatty, as an agricultural writer, renders it 
scarcely necessary for us to say anything in commendation of 
this admirable production. We have read several of the essays 
contained in it, and we do not hesitate to say that they com- 
bine more excellencies than any articles we have ever read on 
the same subject. They exhibit a degree of scientific research 
and practical knowledge seldom united in the same individual. 
The style of the essays is plain, concise, chaste, and well 
adapted to the subject of which they treat. We cannot do the 
agricultural community a better service than to advise each and 
every member of it to procure a copy of Judge Beatty's work. 
No farmer can well dispense with it. — Maysville Eagle. 



In looking over the foregoing pages, I find some typographi- 
cal errors, which are corrected in the following table : 

ERRATA. 

For "that" read "each." 

This note is inserted here by mistake. Its proper place 
is page 78, where it is again inserted* 

The word "the" surplussage. 

For "have" read "leave." 

For "unsound" read "sound." 

For "unloading" read "loading." 

For "water rotted" read "rotted." 

For "223" read "233." 

For "sed" read "sod." 

For "answers" read "answer." 

For "first" read "second." 

The word "labor" after the word "more" wanting. 

For "fur" read "fir." 

For "affected" read "effected." 

For "° 79" read "° 83." 

For "this is" read "these are." 

For "and" read "am." 

For "crop" read "crops." 

For "p 178-9" read "p 278-9." 

For "grain" read "grass." 

The word "not" surplussage. 

For "Sunday instead of" read "Saturday, besides." 

For "500" read "300." 

For "mough" read "mow." 

For "take" read "takes." 

For "bury" read "buy." 

For "revive" read "revives." 

For "action" read "auction." 
The number of pages in this vol. is not quite equal to the 
estimate, in the prospectus, (300) but there is more matter in the vol- 
than is contained in 300 pages of Johnston's Agricultural Chemistry. 



Page. 


Line. 


23 


7 


26 




51 


25 


85 


29 


96 


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96 


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22 


116 


5 


117 


2 


119 


25 


129 


36 


139 


36 


146 


15 


148 (note) 


162 


31 


189 


3 


202 


39 


206 


4 


224 


12 


256 


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]9 


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38 


N. 


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